26:T524,

The paper focuses on the differences in the conceptualisation of stress in the East and the West in the light of differences in the social and cultural context. Modern notions of stress and coping and their Eastern equivalents, such as suffering or dukkha are discussed. While the Western approach is concerned with distress or negative aspects of stress, in Eastern thought, pleasure as well as pain are consid ered stressful and there is a greater degree of acceptance of suffering. While stress researchers have evolved a taxonomy of stress, Indian and Chinese texts focus on the causes of suffering. These include a discussion of types of pain (self and environment generated, supernatural), intense desires and ego involvement or afflictions (klesas). The consequences of suffering such as mental pain, despair and exhaustion are outlined and mediators of suffering which include dharma (right conduct), detachment, impulse control, belief in rebirth and karma and transcendence are discussed. Differing perspectives on coping and stress are presented and the parallels between Eastern and Western coping strategies are drawn. Clearly in the Eastern perspective, long-term strategies such as meditation and development of a philosophy of life are emphasised.

27:T4ad,

The paper examines the learning style and achievement orientation of Asian people focusing on the role of social and cultural factors including attitudes totuards learning and education. The strong collectivistic orientation of Asian people influences their achievement behaviour and success is defined in terms of recog nition and smooth social relationships. Asian students are socialised to value education and consider it a filial duty. The learning context in Asian countries is characterised as being highly authoritarian, teaching methods are expository and praise is seldom used. McClelland's achievement motivation approach was found to be ethnocentric, as it ignored situational and contextual factors. Studies are presented that reveal that the meaning of success is different for Asian people and is mediated by affiliative concerns. Achieuement attributions are different in that Asian students attribute both success and failure to more internal and controllable factors. The paper concludes that the attribution style of Asian students and cooperative reward structure encourages task orientation and a deep approach to learning.

28:T51f,

The paper focuses on ecological and cultural diversities in Asia which have resulted in these countries becoming the main sources of cross-cultural data and studies. Initially, there were one-way research studies where non-Western cultures were the target for obtaining comparative data for testing tentative theories. The outcome was a vast body of replicative studies, dominance of psychologists from the West, indiscriminate use of tests and measures developed in the West and a superficial research ethos, where the needs and problems of the host country were ignored. Exposure to Western psychology resulted in the professional growth of Asian psychologists and with growing cultural sensitivity, culture was treated also as the source providing insights, constructs and methods for conducting research. This has resulted in a deeper understanding and reconceptualisation of the phenomena under investigation (achievement, individualism-collectivism and moral develop ment). In addition, culturally derived psychological concepts and culturally appropriate measures have been used in studies on stress, justice and well-being. General issues and the emergence of indigenous psychologies are also discussed.

29:T661,