This review is based in part on Dr Mukherjee's lecture at the RCPE Mental Health Needs of Children and Young People Symposium held in Edinburgh on 29 September 2011.
BMA Board of Science. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders, a guide for healthcare practitioners [Internet]. London: BMA Publishing; 2007 [cited 2012 March 28]. Available from: http://www.bma.org.uk/images/FetalAlcoholSpectrumDisorders_tcm41-158035.pdf
2.
HoymeHEMayPAKalbergWO A practical clinical approach to diagnosis of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: clarification of the 1996 Institute of Medicine criteria. Pediatrics 2005; 115:39–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-0702
3.
MukherjeeRAHollinsSTurkJ. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder: an overview. J R Soc Med 2006; 99:298–302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.99.6.298
The Bible (New international version). Judges 13:7. Michigan: Biblica; 2011.
6.
LemoinePHarousseauHBorteryuJP[The children of alcoholic parents: anomalies observed in 127 cases]. Quest Medicale1968; 25:476–82.
7.
JonesKLSmithDWUllelandCN Pattern of malformation in offspring of chronic alcoholic mothers. Lancet 1973; 1:1267–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(73)91291-9
8.
WarrenKRFoudinLL.Alcohol-related birth defects: the past, present, and future. Alcohol Res Health2001; 25:153–8.
9.
ClarrenSKSmithDW.The fetal alcohol syndrome. N Engl J Med 1978; 298:1063–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM197805112981906
10.
ChandrasenaANMukherjeeRATurkJ. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: an overview of interventions for affected individuals. Child and Adolescent Mental Health 2009; 14:162–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-3588.2008.00504.x
11.
AstleySJ.Comparison of the 4-Digit code and the Hoyme diagnostic guidelines for Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. Paediatrics 2006; 118:1532–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-0577
12.
ChudleyAEConryJCookJL Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder: Canadian guidelines for diagnosis. CMAJ 2005:172:S1–S21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.1040302
13.
GoodlettCR.Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: new perspectives on diagnosis and intervention. Alcohol 2010; 44:579–82. http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/j.alcohol.2010.10.001
14.
GrayRMukherjeeRA.A psychiatrists guide to Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders in mothers who drank heavily during pregnancy. Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disabilities2007; 1:19–26.
MukherjeeRALaytonMYacoubE Autism and autistic traits in people exposed to heavy prenatal alcohol: data from a clinical series of 21 individuals and a nested case control study. Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disabilities 2011; 5:42–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.5042/amhid.2011.0015
MayPAGossageJPKalbergWO Prevalence and epidemiological characteristics of FASD from various research methods with an emphasis on recent in-school studies. Devl Disabil Res Rev 2009; 15:176–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ddrr.68
19.
MayPAGossageJPMaraisAS The epidemiology of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Partial FAS in a South African community. Drug Alcohol Depend 2007; 88:259–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.11.007
20.
MayPAFiorentinoDPhillip GossageJ Epidemiology of FASD in a province in Italy: prevalence and characteristics of children in a random sample of schools. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2006; 30:1562–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00188.x
21.
PetkovicGBarisicI. FAS prevalence in a sample of urban schoolchildren in Croatia. Reprod Toxicol 2010; 29:237–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.reprotox.2009.11.006
22.
MorleoMWoolfallKDedmanDUnder-reporting of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: an analysis of hospital episode statistics. BMC Pediatr2011; 11:14.
23.
SmithLAFoxcroftD. Drinking in the UK: an exploration of trends [Internet]. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation; 2009 [cited 2012 March 28]. Available from: http://www.jrf.org.uk/publications/drinking-in-the-uk
24.
WarrenKRHewittBGThomasJD.Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: research challenges and opportunities. Alcohol Research &Health2011; 34:4–14.
25.
HutsonJ.Meconium fatty acid ethyl esters and prediction of fetal alcohol effects. J FAS Int2006; 4:1–3.
26.
MukherjeeRAEastmanNTurkJ Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: law and ethics. Lancet 2007; 369:1149–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60542-X
27.
HendersonJGrayRBrocklehurstP. Systematic review of effects of low-moderate prenatal alcohol exposure on pregnancy outcome. BJOG 2007; 114:243–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0528.2006.01163.x
28.
MukherjeeRAHollinsSAbou-SalehMT Low level alcohol consumption and the fetus. BMJ 2005; 330:375–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.330.7488.375
29.
DisneyERIaconoWMcGueM Strengthening the case: prenatal alcohol exposure is associated with increased risk for conduct disorder. Pediatrics 2008; 122:e1225–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-1380
30.
KellyYJSackerAGrayR Light drinking during pregnancy: still no increased risk for socioemotional difficulties or cognitive deficits at 5 years of age? J Epidemiol Community Health 2012; 66:41–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech.2009.103002
31.
SayalKHeronJGoldingJ Prenatal alcohol exposure and gender differences in childhood mental health problems: a longitudinal population-based study. Pediatrics 2007; 119:e426–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-1840
32.
AbelEL.Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: same old, same old. Addiction 2009; 104:1274–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02481.x
33.
AlatiRMacLeodJHickmanM Intrauterine exposure to alcohol and tobacco use and childhood IQ: findings from a parental-offspring comparison within the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Pediatr Res 2008; 64:659–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1203/PDR.0b013e318187cc31
34.
HendersonJKesmodelUGrayR. Systematic review of the fetal effects of prenatal binge-drinking. J Epidemiol Community Health 2007; 61:1069–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech.2006.054213
O'LearyCMNasserNKurinczukJJ Prenatal alcohol exposure and risk of birth defects. Pediatrics 2010; 126:e843–50.http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-0256
37.
D'OnoforioBMVan HulleCAWaldmanID Causal inferences regarding prenatal alcohol exposure and childhood externalising problems. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007; 64:1296–304.http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.11.1296
38.
PatraJBakkerRIrvingH Dose-response relationship between alcohol consumption before and during pregnancy and risk of low birthweight preterm birth and small for gestational age (SGA): a systematic review and meta-analyses. BJOG 2011; 118:1411–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0528.2011.03050.x
39.
ChaudhuriJD.Effect of a single dose of ethanol on developing skeletal muscle of chick embryos. Alcohol 2004; 34:279–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.alcohol.2004.07.012
40.
IeraciAHerreraDG.Single alcohol exposure in early life damages hippocampal stem/progenitor cells and reduces adult neurogenesis. Neurobiol Dis 2007; 26:597–605. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2007.02.011
International Centre for Alcohol Policies. International guidelines on drinking in pregnancy [Internet]. Washington DC: International Centre for Alcohol Policies; 2009. Available from: http//www.icap.org/table/internationalguidelinesondrinkinginpregnancy 2009
43.
AbelELKrugerM. What do physicians know and say about Fetal Alcohol Syndrome?: a survey of obstetricians, pediatricians and family medicine physicians. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1998; 22:1951–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb05902.x
44.
GahaganSSharpeTTBrimacombeM Pediatrician's knowledge, training and experience in the care of children with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Pediatrics 2006; 118:e657–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-0516
45.
HaemmerlieFMMerxCJNelsonSB.College vs junior high school students' knowledge of alcohol as a teratogen. Psychol Rep 1992; 71:809–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1992.71.3.809
46.
KesmodelUKesmodelPS.Drinking during pregnancy: attitudes and knowledge among pregnant Danish women, 1998. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2002; 26:1553–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2002.tb02455.x
47.
LefebvreLGOrdeanAMidmerD Physicians' knowledge of alcohol, tobacco and folic acid in pregnancy. Subst Abus 2007; 28:3–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J465v28n01_02
48.
MackFR.Parental knowledge of FAS and FAE. Conference Proceedings of the Michigan Federal Chapter of the Council of Exceptional Children; 1996 Feb 29; Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA.
NansonJLBolariaRSnyderREPhysician awareness of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: a survey of pediatricians and general practitioners. CMAJ1995; 152:1071–6.
51.
HankinJR.Fetal Alcohol Syndrome prevention research. Alcohol Res Health2002; 26:58–65.
52.
McKnightAMerrettD.Alcohol consumption in pregnancy: a health education problem. J R Coll Gen Pract1987; 37:73–6.
53.
PaleyBO'ConnorMJFrankelF Predictors of stress in parents of children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder. J Dev Behav Paediatr 2006; 27:396–404. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004703-200610000-00005
54.
GranitsasJ.Experiences of adoptive parents of children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder. Clinical Excellence for Nurse Practitioners2004; 8:22–8.
55.
GardnerJ.Living with a child with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs 2000; 25:252–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005721-200009000-00007
56.
BrownJDBednarLMSigvaldasonN. Causes of placement breakdown for foster children affected by alcohol. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal 2007; 24:313–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10560-007-0086-9
57.
BrownJDSigvaldasonNBednarLM.Foster parents perception of placement needs for children with a Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder. Children and Youth Services Review 2005; 27:309–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2004.10.008
58.
GeloJO'MalleyK.Family stress in parenting a child or adolescent with FASD. Iceberg2003; 13:1–4.
59.
SokolRJJanisseJJLouisJM Extreme prematurity: an alcoholrelated birth defect. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2007; 31:1031–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2007.00384.x
60.
VolpeJJ.Cognitive deficits in premature infants. N Eng J Med 1991; 325:276–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199107253250409
61.
CzeizelAEPetikDSmokingPuho E.drinkingalcohol during pregnancy. The reliability of retrospective maternal self-reported information. Cent Eur J Public Health2004; 12:179–83.
62.
GrayRMukherjeeRARutterM. Alcohol consumption during pregnancy and its effects on neurodevelopment: what is known and what remains uncertain. Addiction 2009; 104:1270–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02441.x
63.
HanniganJH.What research with animals is telling us about alcoholrelated neurodevelopmental disorder. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1996; 55:489–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0091-3057(96)00251-1.
64.
SulikKK.Genesis of alcohol-induced craniofacial dysmorphism. Exp Biol Med2005; 230:366–75.
65.
Office for National Statistics. Drinking: adults' behaviour and knowledge in 2008 [Internet]. South Wales: ONS; 2009 [cited 2012 March 28]. Available from: http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/lifestyles/drinking--adult-s-behaviour-and-knowledge/2008-report/index.html
66.
Office for National Statistics. Smoking and drinking among adults, 2008 [Internet]. South Wales: ONS; 2010 [cited 2012 March 28]. Available from: www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/ghs/general-lifestylesurvey/2009-report/smoking-and-drinking-among-adults--2009.pdf
67.
LeichterJLeeM. Method of ethanol administration as a confounding factor in studies of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Life Sciences 1982; 31:221–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0024-3205(82)90581-1
68.
CuddTA.Animal model systems for the study of alcohol teratology. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2005; 230:389–93.
69.
JacobsonJLJacobsonSW.Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on child development. Alcohol Res Health2002; 26:282–6.
70.
RasmussenC.Executive functioning and working memory in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2005; 29:1359–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.alc.0000175040.91007.d0
71.
MattsonSNRileyEP.Parent ratings of behaviour in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure and IQ-matched controls. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2000; 24:226–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2000.tb04595.x
72.
MattsonSNGoodmanAMCaineC Executive functioning in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1999; 23:1808–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1999.tb04077.x
73.
BurdenMJJacobsonSWSokolRJ Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on attention and working memory at 7.5 years of age. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2005; 29:443–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.ALC.0000156125.50577.EC
74.
BurdenMJJacobsonSWJacobsonJL.Relation of prenatal alcohol exposure to cognitive processing speed and efficiency in childhood. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2005; 29:1473–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.alc.0000175036.34076.a0
75.
RoebuckTMMattsonSNRileyEP.Interhemispheric transfer in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2002; 26:1863–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2002.tb02494.x.
76.
SampsonPDKerrBCarmichael OlsonH The effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on adolescent cognitive processing: a speed-accuracy tradeoff. Intelligence 1997; 24:329–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(97)90064-7
MattsonSNRoeschSCFagerlundA Towards a neurobehavioural profile of FASD. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2010; 34:1640–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2010.01250.x
79.
KodituwakkuPW.Neurocognitive profile in children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. Dev Disabil Res Rev 2009; 15:218–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ddrr.73
80.
BaerJSSampsonPDBarrHM A 21-year longitudinal analysis of the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on young adult drinking. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003; 60:377–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.60.4.377.
81.
StreissguthAPO'MalleyK. Neuropsychiatric implications and longterm consequences of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry 2000; 5:177–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/scnp.2000.6729
FamyCStreissguthAPUnisAS.Mental illness in adults with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome or Fetal Alcohol Effects. Am J Psychiatry1998; 155:552–4.
84.
BarrHMBooksteinFLO'MalleyKD Binge drinking during pregnancy as a predictor of psychiatric disorders on the structured clinical interview for DSM-IV in young adult offspring. Am J Psychiatry 2006; 163:1061–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.6.1061
85.
HugginsJEGrantTO'MalleyKSuicide attemps among adults with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: clinical considerations. Mental Health Aspects of Developmental Disabilities2008; 11:33–40.
