Professional drivers in Saudi Arabia may be at increased risk for mental illness because of their expatriate status, long driving hours, and unhealthy lifestyles.
OBJECTIVE:
To assess the prevalence and correlates of depressive symptoms among professional drivers in Saudi Arabia, most of whom are expatriates.
METHODS:
Professional drivers (n = 324) were interviewed after convenient sampling of transportation companies. The Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) was used to screen for depressive symptoms. Correlates of depressive symptoms were identified using Cox regression with a fixed follow-up time.
RESULTS:
Of the drivers, 20.4% had moderate to severe depressive symptoms. Sleep quality was found to be a significant independent correlate of depressive symptoms. Drivers with poor and fair sleep quality had higher risk of depressive symptoms than drivers with excellent sleep quality (poor: OR = 5.8, CI: 1.95–17.11; fair: OR = 4.5, CI: 1.68–11.96).
CONCLUSION:
The frequency of depressive symptoms among professional drivers in Saudi Arabia is high (one out of five). Companies should consider screening for depressive symptoms and sleep disorders among employees and should provide referrals as needed.
PetersSE, GroganH, HendersonGM, López GómezMA, Martínez MaldonadoM, Silva SanhuezaI, et al. Workingconditions influencing drivers’ safety and well-being in thetransportation industry: “On Board” program. Int J Environ Res Public Health2021;18(19). doi:10.3390/ijerph181910173.
2.
CrizzleA, BigelowP, AdamsD, GooderhamS, MyersA, ThiffaultPHealth and wellness of long-haul truck and bus drivers: A systematic literature review and directions for future research. J Transp Health2017;7:90–109. doi: 10.1016/j.jth.2017.05.359.
3.
ApostolopoulosY, SönmezS, ShattellMM, GonzalesC, FehrenbacherCHealth survey of US. long-haul truck drivers: Work environment, physical health, and healthcare access. Work2013;46(1):113–23. doi: 10.3233/WOR-121553.
4.
IzadiN, NajafiA, SaraeiMMetabolic syndrome and its determinants among professional drivers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Diabetes Metab Disord2021;20(2):2015–23. doi: 10.1007/s40200-021-00928-7.
5.
RathiA, KumarV, SinghA, LalPA cross-sectional study of prevalence of depression, anxiety and stress amongprofessional cab drivers in New Delhi. Indian J Occup Environ Med2019;23(1):48–53. doi: 10.4103/ijoem.IJOEM_158_18.
6.
De Bel-AirFDemography, migration and labour market in Saudi Arabia 2018, Explanatory note No. 5/2018: Gulf Labour Markets, Migration and Population Programme (GLMM) of the Migration Policy Center (MPC) and the Gulf Research Center (GRC); 2018. Available from: https://gulfmigration.grc.net/media/pubs/exno/GLMM_EN__05.pdf.
7.
AlKetbiLMB, GrivnaM, Al DhaheriSRisky driving behaviour in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates: A cross-sectional, survey-based study. BMC Public Health2020;20(1):1324. doi: 10.1186/s12889-020-09389-8.
8.
SaquibN, ZaghloulMS, SaquibJ, AlhomaidanHT, Al-MohaimeedA, Al-MazrouAAssociation of cumulative job dissatisfaction with depression, anxiety, and stress among expatriate nurses in Saudi Arabia. J Nurs Manag2019;27(4):740–8. doi: 10.1111/jonm.12762.
9.
Al-MaskariF, ShahSM, Al-SharhanR, Al-HajE, Al-KaabiK, KhonjiD,et al. Prevalence of depression and suicidal behaviors among male migrant workers in United Arab Emirates. J Immigr Minor Health2011;13(6):1027–32. doi: 10.1007/s10903-011-9470-9.
10.
UmarA, SaquibJ, HaikalAYM, Al KomiO, AlnajjarAH, RizkyWC,et al.Symptoms of depression and stress among migrant workers in Al Qassim, Saudi Arabia. Int J Soc Psychiatry. 2023:207640231188328. doi: 10.1177/00207640231188328.
11.
NadimW, AlOtaibiA, Al-MohaimeedA, EwidM, SarhandiM, SaquibJ,et al. Depression among migrant workers in Al-Qassim, Saudi Arabia. J Affect Disord2016;206:103–8. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2016.07.037.
12.
Al-WathinaniA, SchwebelD, Al-NasserA, AlrugaibA, Al-SuwaidanH, Al-RowaisS,et al. The prevalence of risky driving habits in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Sustainability2021;13(13):7338. doi: 10.3390/su13137338.
13.
LlamazaresJ, UsecheSA, MontoroL, AlonsoFCommuting accidents of Spanish professional drivers: Whenoccupational risk exceeds the workplace. Int J Occup Saf Ergon2021;27(3):754–62. doi: 10.1080/10803548.2019.1619993.
14.
MansuriFA, Al-ZalabaniAH, ZalatMM, QabshawiRIRoad safety and road traffic accidents in Saudi Arabia. Asystematic review of existing evidence. . Saudi Med J2015;36(4):418–24. doi: 10.15537/smj.2015.4.10003.
15.
TaitR, IversR, MarinoJL, DohertyD, GrahamPL, CunichM, et al. Mental health and behavioural factors involved in road traffic crashes by young adults: Analysis of the Raine Study. J Epidemiol Community Health2022;76(6):556–62. doi: 10.1136/jech-2021-218039.
16.
JiangL, WangY, ZhangY, LiR, WuH, LiC,et al. The reliability and validity of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) for Chinese university students. Front Psychiatry2019;10:315. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00315.
17.
CostantiniL, PasquarellaC, OdoneA, ColucciME, CostanzaA, SerafiniG,et al. Screening for depression in primary care with Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9): A systematic review. J Affect Disord2021;279:473–83. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2020.09.131.
18.
MirzaAA, MilaatWA, RamadanIK, BaigM, ElmorsySA, BeyariGM,et al. Depression, anxiety and stress among medical and non-medical students in Saudi Arabia: An epidemiological comparative cross-sectional study. Neurosciences (Riyadh)2021;26(2):141–51. doi: 10.17712/nsj.2021.2.20200127.
19.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5. 5th ed.Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.
20.
GuestR, TranY, GopinathB, CameronID, CraigAPrevalence and psychometric screening for the detection of major depressive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder in adults injured in a motor vehicle crash who are engaged in compensation. BMC Psychol2018;6(1):4. doi: 10.1186/s40359-018-0216-5.
21.
LovibondS, LovibondPManual for the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales. Sydney: Psychology Foundation; 1995.
22.
SnyderE, CaiB, De MuroC, MorrisonMF, BallWA new single-item sleep quality scale: results of psychometric evaluation in patients with chronic primary insomnia and depression. J Clin Sleep Med2018;14(11):1849–57. doi: 10.5664/jcsm.7478.
23.
NHLBI Obesity Education Initiative Expert Panel on the Identification E, and Treatment of Obesity in Adults (US). Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults: The evidence report. Bethesda, MD: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; 1998.
24.
Diaz-QuijanoFAA simple method for estimating relative risk using logistic regression. BMC Med Res Methodol2012;12:14. doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-12-14.
25.
BarrosAJ, HirakataVNAlternatives for logistic regression in cross-sectional studies: An empirical comparison of models that directly estimate the prevalence ratio. BMC Med Res Methodol2003;3:21. doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-3-21.
26.
HiltonMF, StaddonZ, SheridanJ, WhitefordHAThe impact of mental health symptoms on heavy goods vehicle drivers’ performance. Accid Anal Prev2009;41(3):453–61. doi: 10.1016/j.aa2009.01.012.
27.
da Silva-JúniorFP, de PinhoRS, de MelloMT, de BruinVM, de BruinPFRisk factors for depression in truck drivers. SocPsychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol2009;44(2):125–9. doi: 10.1007/s00127-008-0412-3.
28.
Ruiz-GrossoP, RamosM, SamalvidesF, Vega-DienstmaierJ, KrugerHCommon mental disorders in public transportation drivers in Lima, Peru. PLoS One2014;9(6):e101066. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0101066.
29.
ShattellM, ApostolopoulosY, CollinsC, SönmezS, FehrenbacherCTrucking organization and mental health disorders of truck drivers. Issues Ment Health Nurs2012;33(7):436–44. doi: 10.3109/01612840.2012.665156.
30.
UkuhorHPrevalence and sociodemographic correlates of depressive symptoms among male expatriate workers in Saudi Arabia. Majmaah J Health Sci2020;8(3):61–77. doi: 10.5455/mjhs.2020.03.008.
31.
SarwaniS, AbdullaK, MandeelMPrevalence of stress, anxiety and depression among expatriate workers. Bahrain Med Bull2013;35(3):126–9.
32.
KhaledSM, GrayRDepression in migrant workers and nationals of Qatar: An exploratory cross-cultural study. Int J Soc Psychiatry2019;65(5):354–67. doi: 10.1177/0020764019850589.
33.
GoldstoneA, JavitzHS, ClaudatosSA, BuysseDJ, HaslerBP, de ZambottiM,et al.
Sleep disturbance predicts depression symptoms in early adolescence: Initial findings from the adolescent brain cognitive development study. J Adolesc Health2020;66(5):567–74. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.12.005.
34.
da EstrelaC, McGrathJ, BooijL, GouinJPHeart rate variability, sleep quality, and depression in the context of chronic stress. Ann Behav Med2021;55(2):155–64. doi: 10.1093/abm/kaaa039.
35.
WangPS, SimonGE, AvornJ, AzocarF, LudmanEJ, McCullochJ,et al. Telephone screening, outreach, and care management for depressed workers and impact on clinical and work productivity outcomes: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA2007;298(12):1401–11. doi: 10.1001/jama.298.12.1401.
36.
SheridanJ, HiltonM, ChantD, WhitefordHeditors. Early telephonic intervention in individuals with depression, who are not currently in treatment, successfully increases treatment seeking behaviour decreases symptomatology. 42nd RANZCP Congress 2007;2007; Gold Coast, Queensland: Aust N Z J Psychiatry. doi: 10.1080/14401614070410s10128.
37.
HuntGE, MalhiGS, LaiHMX, ClearyMPrevalence of comorbid substance use in major depressive disorder in community and clinical settings, 1990–2019: Systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord2020;266:288–304. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2020.01.141.
38.
RossiR, JanniniTB, SocciV, PacittiF, LorenzoGDStressful life events and resilience during the COVID-19 lockdown measures in Italy: Association with mental health outcomes and age. Front Psychiatry2021;12:635832. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.635832.
