Acquired brain injuries often cause cognitive impairment, significantly impacting
participation in rehabilitation and activities of daily living. Music can influence
brain function, and thus may serve as a uniquely powerful cognitive rehabilitation
intervention.
OBJECTIVE:
This feasibility study investigated the potential effectiveness of music-based
cognitive rehabilitation for adults with chronic acquired brain injury.
METHODS:
The control group participated in three Attention Process Training (APT) sessions,
while the experimental group participated in three Music Attention Control Training
(MACT) sessions. Pre-and post- testing used the Trail Making A & B, Digit Symbol,
and Brown-Peterson Task as neuropsychological tests.
RESULTS:
ANOVA analyses showed no significant difference between groups for Trail A Test, Digit
Symbol, and Brown-Peterson Task. Trail B showed significant differences at post-test
favouring MACT over APT. The mean difference time between pre-and post-tests for the
Trail B Test was also significantly different between APT and MACT in favour of MACT
using a two-sample t-test as well as a follow-up nonparametric Mann
Whitney U-test.
CONCLUSIONS:
The group differences found in the Trail B tests provided preliminary evidence for the
efficacy of MACT to arouse and engage attention in adults with acquired brain
injury.
Baddeley,A..
(2012). Working memory: theories, models, and
controversies. Annual Review of Psychology,
62, 1–29. Doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100422
2.
Barr,W.
B. (2003). Neuropsychological
testing of high school athletes: Preliminary norms and test-retest
indices. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology,
18, 91–101. doi: 10.1093/arclin/18.1.91
3.
Barrett,K.
C., Ashley,R., Strait,D.
L. & Kraus,N.
(2013). Art and science: How musical training shapes the
brain. Frontiers in Psychology,
1(7), 1–13. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00713
4.
Bherer,L., Belleville,S. &
Peretz,I.
(2001). Education, age, and the Brown-Peterson
technique. Developmental Neuropsychology,
19, 237–251. doi: 10.1207/S15326942DN1903_1
5.
Bialystok,E. &
DePape,A.
M. (2009). Musical expertise,
bilingualism, and executive functioning. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 35,
565–574. doi: 10.1037/a0012735
6.
Boone,K.
B. (1999). Neuropsychological
assessment of executive functions: Impact of age, education, gender, intellectual level,
and vascular status on executive test scores. In MillerB.
L. & CummingsJ. L. (Eds.).
The human frontal lobes: Functions and Disorders. New
York: Guildford Press.
7.
Bowler,R., Sudia,S., Mergler,D., Harrison,R. &
Cone,J.
(1992). Comparison of Digit Symbol and Symbol Digit Modalities
Tests for assessing neurotoxic exposure. The Clinical
Neuropsychologist, 6,
103–104.
8.
Ceravolo,M.
G. (2006). Cognitive
rehabilitation of attention deficit after brain damage: from research to clinical
practice. Europa Medicophysica, 42,
49–51.
9.
Chen,A. J.
W., Abams,G. M. &
D’Esposito,M.
(2006). Functional reintegration ofprefrontal neural
networks for enhancing recovery after brain injury. J Head
Trauma Rehabilitation, 21(2),
107–118.
10.
Cicerone,K.
D., Goldin,Y., Ganci,K., Rosenbaum,A., Wethe,J.
V., Langenbahn,D. M.,
Malec,J.
F., Bergquist,T. F.,
Kingsley,K., Nagele,D., Trexler,L., Fraas,M., Bogdanova,Y. &
Harley,J.
(2019). P. Evidence-based cognitive rehabilitation:
Systematic review of the literature from 2009 through 2014.
Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation,
100(8), 1515–1533.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2019.02.011.
11.
Cohen,R.
A. (1993). The Neuropsychology
of Attention. New York:
Plenum Press.
12.
Couillet,J., Soury,S., Lebornec,G., Asloun,S., Joseph,P.
A., Mazaux,J-M. &
Azouvi,P.
(2010). Rehabilitation of divided attention after severe
traumatic brain injury: A randomized trial. Neuropsychological
Rehabilitation, 20(3),
321–339. doi: 10.1080/09602010903467746
13.
Corbetta,M. &
Shulman,G.
L. (2002). Control of
goal-directed and stimulus driven attention in the brain. Nature
Reviews: Neuroscience, 3,
201–215.
14.
Dineen,L.
C. & Blakesley.B. C.
(1973). Algorithm AS 62: Generator for the sampling
distribution of the Mann-Whitney U statistic. Applied
Statistics, 22,
269–273.
15.
Dockree,P.
M., Kelly,S. P., Roche,R. A.
P., Hogan,M. J.Reilly,R.
B. & Robertson,I. H.
(2004). Behavioural and physiological impairments of
sustained attention after traumatic brain injury. Cognitive
Brain Research, 20, 403–414.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.03.019
16.
Dosenbach,N. U.
F., Fair,D. A., Cohen,A.
L., Schlaggar,B. L. &
Petersen,S.
E. (2008). A dual-networks
architecture of top-down control. Trends in Cognitive
Science, 12, 99–105.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2008.01.001
17.
Drake,C., Jones,M.
R. & Baruch,C.
(2000). The development of rhythmic attending in auditory
sequences: attunement, referent period, focal attending.
Cognition, 77,
251–288.
18.
Emmerson,R.
Y., Dustman,R. E.,
Shearer,D.
E. & Turner,C. W.
(1990). P3 latency and symbol digit performance correlations
in aging. Experimental Aging Research,
15, 151–159.
19.
Eslava-Mejia,J.
(2017). The attention profile in music therapy assessment
for children. Development and pilot study of validity and reliability. Dissertation.
Aalborg University. Denmark:
Aalborg University Press.
20.
Gilmore,G.
C., Royer,F. L. &
Gruhn,J.
J. (1983). Age differences in
symbol-digit substitution task performance. Journal of Clinical
Psychology, 39,
114–124.
21.
Hannon,E. &
Trainor,L.
(2007). Music acquisition: effects of enculturation and
formal training on development. Trends in Cognitive
Science, 11, 466–472. doi:
10.1016/j.tics.2007.08.008
22.
Haskins,E.C.
(2012). Cognitive Rehabilitation Manual: Translating evidence-based
recommendations into practice. Virginia: American Congress of Rehabilitation
Medicine.
23.
Hegde,S.
(2014). Music-based cognitive remediation therapy for patients
with traumatic brain injury. Frontiers in Neurology,
5(34). Doi: 10.3389/fneru.2014.00034
24.
Hedge,S.
(2019). Neurologic music therapy targeting cognitive and affective functions.
In Thaut & Hodges (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Music and the Brain.
Doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198804123.013.29
25.
Heilbronner,R.
L., Henry,G. K., Buck,P., Adams,R.
L. & Fogles,T.
(1991). Lateralized brain damage and performance on Trail
Making A and B, Digit Span Forward and Backward, and TPT memory and
location. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology,
6, 251–258.
26.
Hinton-Bayre,A.
D. & Geffen,G.
(2005). Comparability, reliability, and practice 118 effects
on alternate forms of the Digit Symbol and Symbol Digit Modalities
Tests. Psychological Assessment,
17(2), 237–241. doi:
10.1037/1040-3590.17.2.237
27.
Jakobson,L.
S., Cuddy,L. L. &
Kilgour,A.
R. (2003). Time tagging: A key
to musicians’ superior memory. Music Perception,
20(3), 307–313.
https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2003.20.3.307
28.
Janata,P., Tillmann,B. &
Bharucha,J.
J. (2002). Listening to
polyphonic music recruits domain-general attention and working memory
circuits. Cognitive, Affective and Behavioural
Neuroscience, 2(2),
121–140.
29.
Jeong,E. & Lesiuk,T.
L. (2011). Development and
preliminary evaluation of a music-based attention assessment for patients with traumatic
brain injury. Journal of Music Therapy,
48(4),
551–572.
30.
Jonides,J., Badres,D., Curtis,C., Thompson-Schill,S.L., &
Smith,E.
(2002). Mechanisms of conflict resolution in prefrontal
cortex. In Stuss,D.T. and
Knight,R.T. (Eds).
The Principles of Frontal Lobe Function. Oxford
University Press.
31.
Joy,S., Kaplan,E. &
Fein,D.
(2004). Speed and memory in the WAIS-III Digit Symbol- Coding
subtest across the adult lifespan. Archives of Clinical
Neuropsychology, 19,
759–767.
32.
Koelsch,S.
(2009). A neuroscientific perspective on music therapy. The
Neurosciences and Music III: Disorders and Plasticity. Ann N.Y.
Acad Sci, 1169,
374–384.
33.
Kopelman,M.
D. & Stanhopes,N.
(1997). Rates of forgetting in organic amnesia following
temporal lobe, diencephalic, or frontal lobe lesions.
Neuropsychology, 11,
343–356.
34.
Laux,L.
F. & Lane,D. M.
(1985). Information processing components of substitution
test performance. Intelligence,
9(2),
111–136.
35.
Lesniak,M.
M., Iwanski,S., Szutkowska-Hoser,J. &
Seniow,J.
(2019). Comprehensive cognitive training improves attention
and memory in patients with severe or moderate brain injury.
Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 27(6),
570–579. Doi: 10.1080/23179097.2019.15766691
36.
Lezak,M.
D. (1995). Neuropsychological
assessment (3rd ed.). New
York: Oxford University
Press.
37.
Lucas,J.
A., Ivnik,R. J., Smith,G.
E., Ferman,T. J.,
Willis,F.
B., Petersen,R. C. &
Graff- Radford,N.
R. (2005). Mayo’s older
African-American normative studies: Norms for Boston Naming Test, Controlled Oral Word
Association, Category Fluency, Animal Naming, Token Test, WRAT-3 Reading, Trail Making
Test, Stroop Test, and Judgment of Line Orientation. The
Clinical Neuropsychologist, 19,
242–269.
38.
Magee,W.
L., Clark,I., Tamplin,J., &
Bradt,J.
(2017). Music interventions for acquired brain
injury. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews,
1, CD006787. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006787.pub3
39.
Mesulam,M.
M. (2010). Attentional and
confusional states. Continuum Lifelong Learning
Neurology, 16(4),
129–139. doi: 10.1212/01.CON.0000368265.38415.35
40.
Michel,J.
A. & Mateer,C. A.
(2006). Attention rehabilitation following stroke and
traumatic brain injury. Europa Medicophysica,
42(1),
59–67.
41.
Miller,E.
K. (2000). The prefrontal
cortex and cognitive control. Nature Reviews:
Neuroscience, 1,
59–65.
42.
Mitrushina,M.
N., Boone,K. B., Razani,J. &
D’Elia,L.
F. (2005). Handbook of
normative data for neuropsychological assessment (2nd ed.).
New York: Oxford University
Press.
43.
Moreno,S., Bialystok,E., Barac,R., Schellenberg,E.
G., Cepeda,N. J. &
Chau,T.
(2011). Short-term music training enhances verbal intelligence
and executive function. Psychological Science,
22, 1425–1433. doi: 10.1177/0956797611416999
44.
Moreno,S. &
Bidelman,G.
M. (2014). Examining neural
plasticity and cognitive benefit through the unique lens of musical
training. Hearing Research, 308,
84–97.
45.
Nowell,C., Downing,M., Bragge,P., &
Ponsford,J.
(2020). Current practice of cognitive rehabilitation
following traumatic brain injury: An international survey.
Neuropsychological Rehabilitation,
30(10), 1976–1995.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09602011.2019.1623823
46.
Pallesen,K.
J., Brattico,E., Bailey,C.
J., Korvenoja,A.,
Koivisto,J., Gjedde,A., et
al. (2010). Cognitive control in auditory working
memory is enhanced in musicians. PLoS ONE,
4, e11120. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0011120
47.
Peretz,I. &
Zatorre,R.
J. (2005). Brain organization
for music processing. Annual Review of Psychology,
56, 89–114. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070225
48.
Peretz,I.Zatorre,R. (Eds).
(2009). The Cognitive Neuroscience of Music.
Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
49.
Peterson,L.
R. & Peterson,M. J.
(1959). Short-term retention of individual verbal
items. Journal of Experimental Psychology,
58, 193–198.
50.
PetersonS.
E. & Posner,M. I.
(2012). The attentional system of the human brain: 20 years
later. Annual Review of Neuroscience,
35, 73–89. doi: 10.1155/2014/405094
51.
Pineda,D.
A., & Merchan,V.
(2003). Executive function in young Columbian
adults. International Journal of Neuroscience,
113(3), 397–410. doi:
10.1080/00207450390162164
52.
PonsfordJ.
L. & KinsellaG.
(1988). Evaluation of a remedial programme for attentional
deficits following closed head injury. Journal of Clinical
Experimental Neuropsychology, 10,
693–708.
53.
Ponsford,J., Olver,J., Ponsford,M. &
Nelms,R.
(2003). Long-term adjustment of families following traumatic
brain injury where comprehensive rehabilitation has been provided.
Brain Injury, 17(6). Doi: 10.1080/0269905031000070143
54.
Rabin,L.
A., Barr,W. B. &
Burton,L.
A. (2005). Assessment
practices of clinical neuropsychologists in the United States and Canada: A survey of
INS, NAN, and APA Division 40 members. Archives of Clinical
Neuropsychology, 20, 33–65.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2004.02.005
55.
R Core Team (2017). R: A language and environment
for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria.
http://www.R-project.org/
56.
Sarkamo,T., Teraniemi,M., Laitinen,S., Forsblom,A., Soinila,S., Mikkonen,M., Autti,T., Silvennoinen,H.
M., Erkkila,J., Laine,M., Peretz,I. &
Hietanen,M.
(2008). Music listening enhances cognitive recovery and mood
after middle cerebral artery stroke. Brain,
131, 866–876.
57.
Sarkamo,T., Tervaniemi,M. &
Huotilainen,M.
(2013). Music perception and cognition: development, neural
basis, and rehabilitative use of music. WIRE’s Cognitive
Science, 4, 441–451. doi:
10.1002/wcs.1237
58.
Siponkoski,S
-T., Martinez-Molina,N.,
Kuusela,L., Laitenen,S., Holma,M., Ahlfors,M., Jordan-Kilkki,P.,
Ala-Kauhaluoma,K.,
Melkas,S., Pekkola,J., Rodiguez-Fornells,A.,
Laine,M., Yinen,A., Rantane,P., Koskinen,S., Lipsanen,J. &
Sarkamo,T.
(2020). Music therapy enhances executive functions and
prefrontal structural neuroplasticity after traumatic brain injury: Evidence from a
randomized control trail. Journal of Neurotrauma,
37, 618–634. Doi: 10.1089/neu.2019.6413
59.
Smith,A.
(1991). Symbol Digit Modalities Test. Los Angeles, CA:
Western Psychological Services.
60.
Solhberg,M.
M. & Mateer,C. A.
(2001). Cognitive Rehabilitation.
New York: Guildford
Press.
61.
Sohlberg,M.
M., McLaughlin,K. A.,
Pavese,A.Heidreck,A. &
Posner,M.
I. (2000). Evaluation of
attention process training and brain injury education in persons with acquired brain
injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental
Neuropsychology, 22(5),
656–676. https://doi.org/10.1076/1380-3395(200010)22:5;1-9;FT656
62.
Steinberg,B.
A., Bieliauskas,L. A.,
Smith,G.
E. & Ivnik,R. J.
(2005). Mayo Older Americans Normative Studies: Age-and
IQ-adjusted norms for the Trail-Making Test, the Stroop Test, and MAE Controlled Oral
Word Association Test. The Clinical Neuropsychologist,
19, 329–239. doi: 10.1080/13854040590945210
63.
Strait,D.
L. & Kraus,N.
(2011). Playing music for a smarter ear: cognitive,
perceptual, and neurobiological evidence. Music
Perception, 29, 133–146. doi:
10.1525/mp.2011.29.2.133
Strauss,E., Sherman,E. M.
S. & Spreen,O.
(2006). A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests:
Administration, Norms, and Commentary. Oxford University
Press.
66.
Stuss,D.
T.Stethem,L.
L., Hugenholtz,H. &
Richard,M.
T. (1989). Traumatic brain
injury: A comparison of three clinical tests, and analysis of recovery.
The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 3,
145–156.
67.
Stuss,D.
T., Stethem,L. L. &
Poirier,C.
A. (1987). Comparison of three
tests of attention and rapid information processing across six age
groups. The Clinical Neuropsychologist,
1, 139–152.
68.
Stuss,D.
T., Stethem,L. L. &
Pelchat,G.
(1988). Three tests of attention and rapid information
processing: An extension. The Clinical
Neuropsychologist, 2,
246–250.
69.
Tallon-Baudry,C.
(2012). On the neural mechanisms subserving consciousness
and attention. Frontiers in Psychology,
2(397). doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2-11.00397
70.
Thaut,M.
(2005). Rhythm, Music, and the Brain.
New York:
Routledge.
71.
Thaut,M.
H. & Gardiner,J. C.
(2014). Music Attention Control Training. In
Thaut,M. & Hoemberg,V. (eds.).
The Handbook of Neurologic Music Therapy.
Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
72.
Thaut,M., Gardiner,J.
C., Holmberg,D., Horwitz,J., Kent,L., Andrews,G., Donelan,B. &
McIntosh,G.
R. (2009). Neurologic music
therapy improves executive function and emotional adjustment in traumatic brain injury
rehabilitation. The Neurosciences and Music III: Disorders and
Plasticity. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci, 1169,
406–416.
73.
Tombaugh,T.
N. (2004). Trail Making Test A
and B: Normative data stratified by age and education. Archives
of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19,
203–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6177(03)00039-8.
74.
Tucker,A.
M., Whitney,P., Belenky,G., et
al. (2010). Effects of sleep deprivation on
dissociated components of executive functioning. Sleep,
33, 47–57. doi: 10.1093/sleep/33.1.47
75.
Vallet-Azouvi,C.,
Pradat-Diehl,P. &
Azouvi,P.
(2009). Rehabilitation of the central executive of working
memory after severe traumatic brain injury: Two single-case studies.
Brain Injury, 23(6),
585–594. doi: 10.1080/02699050902970711
76.
Verhaeghe,S.,
Defloor,T. &
Grypdonck,M.
(2005). Stress and coping among families of patients with
traumatic brain injury: a review of the literature. Nursing
Science, 14(8),
1004–1012. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2702.2005.01126.x
77.
Vik,B. M.
D., Skeie,G. O., Vikane,E. &
Specht,K.
(2018). Effects of music production on cortical plasticity
within cognitive rehabilitation of patients with mild traumatic brain
injury. Brain Injury,
32(5), 634–643. Doi:
10.1080/02699052.2018.1431842
78.
Whyte,E., Skidmore,E., Aizenstein,H.Richer,J. &
Butters,M.
(2011). Cognitive impairment in acquired brain injury: a
predictor of rehabilitation outcomes and an opportunity for novel
interventions. American Academy of Physical Medicine and
Rehabilitation, 3, S45–S51. doi:
10.1016/pmrj.2011.05.007
79.
Wolfe,D.
E. & Noguchi,L. K.
(2009). The use of music with young children to improve
sustained attention during a vigilance task in the presence of auditory
distractions. Journal of Music Therapy,
46, 69–82. Doi: 10.1093/jmt/46.1.69
80.
Uchiyama,C.
L., D’elia,L. F.,
Dellinger,A.
M., Seines,O. A.,
Becker,J.
T., Wesch,J. E., et
al. (1994). Longitudinal comparison of alternate
versions of the Symbol Digit Modalities Test: Issues of form comparability and
moderating demographic variables. The Clinical
Neuropsychologist, 8,
209–218.
81.
Yeudall,L.
T., Fromm,D., Reddon,J.
R. & Stefanyk,W. O.
(1986). Normative data stratified by age and sex for 12
neuropsychological tests. Journal of Clinical
Psychology, 42,
918–946.
