The ecosystem services argument is a highly publicised instrumental argument for protecting biodiversity. I develop a new objection to this argument based on the lack of a causal connection from global species losses to local ecosystem changes. I survey some alternative formulations of services arguments, including ones incorporating option value or a precautionary principle, and show that they do not fare much better than the standard version. I conclude that environmental thinkers should rely less on ecosystem services as a means to defend biodiversity, and that attention should be focused on additional types of value which might be attributed to global biodiversity.
BroseU. and HillebrandH.2016. ‘Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in dynamic landscapes’. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences371 (1694): 20150267. Crossref
2.
Burch-BrownJ. and ArcherA.2017. ‘In defence of biodiversity’. Biology & Philosophy32 (6): 969–997. Crossref
3.
CallicottJ.B.2017. ‘What good is it, anyway?’. In GarsonJ., PlutynskiA. and SarkarS (eds), The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Biodiversity, pp. 168–182. London: Routledge.
4.
CardinaleB.2014. ‘Overlooked local biodiversity loss’. Science344 (6188): 1098–1098. Crossref
5.
CardinaleB.J., GonzalezA., AllingtonG.R.H. and LoreauM.2018. ‘Is local biodiversity declining or not? A summary of the debate over analysis of species richness time trends’. Biological Conservation219: 175–183. Crossref
6.
CartwrightN. and HardieJ.2012. Evidence-Based Policy: A Practical Guide to Doing It Better. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
7.
deLaplanteK. and PicassoV.2011. ‘The biodiversity-ecosystem function debate in ecology’. In deLaplanteK., BrownB. and PeacockK.A. (eds), Philosophy of Ecology, pp. 169–200. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Crossref
8.
DeliègeG. and NeuteleersS.2015. ‘Should biodiversity be useful? Scope and limits of ecosystem services as an argument for biodiversity conservation’. Environmental Values24 (2): 165–182. Crossref
9.
DesjardinsE., DonhauserJ. and BarkerG.2019. ‘Ecological historicity, novelty and functionality in the Anthropocene’. Environmental Values28 (3): 275–303. Crossref
10.
DíazS., SetteleJ., BrondízioE., NgoH.T., GuèzeM., AgardJ., ArnethA., . 2019. Summary for Policymakers of the Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Bonn, Germany: IPBES Secretariat. Crossref
11.
DïazS. and CabidoM.2001. ‘Vive la différence: Plant functional diversity matters to ecosystem processes’. Trends in Ecology & Evolution16 (11): 646–655. Crossref
12.
DoakD.F., BiggerD., HardingE.K., MarvierM.A., O'MalleyR.E. and ThomsonD.1998. ‘The statistical inevitability of stability-diversity relationships in community ecology’. The American Naturalist151 (3): 264–276. Crossref
13.
DornelasM., GotelliN.J., McGillB., ShimadzuH., MoyesF., SieversC. and MagurranA.E.2014. ‘Assemblage time series reveal biodiversity change but not systematic loss’. Science344 (6181): 296–299. Crossref
14.
DowningA.L., BrownB.L. and LeiboldM.A.2014. ‘Multiple diversity–stability mechanisms enhance population and community stability in aquatic food webs’. Ecology95 (1): 173–184. Crossref
15.
EhrlichP.R. and EhrlichA.H.1981. Extinction: The Causes and Consequences of the Disappearance of Species.New York: Random House.
16.
EhrlichP. and WalkerB.1998. ‘Rivets and redundancy’. BioScience48 (5): 387–387. Crossref
17.
GagicV., BartomeusI., JonssonT., TaylorA., WinqvistC., FischerC., SladeE.M.. 2015. ‘Functional identity and diversity of animals predict ecosystem functioning better than species-based indices’. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences282: 20142620. Crossref
18.
GillerP.S., HillebrandH., BerningerU.-G., GessnerM.O., HawkinsS., InchaustiP., InglisC.. 2004. ‘Biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning: Emerging issues and their experimental test in aquatic environments’. Oikos104 (3): 423–436. Crossref
19.
GonzalezA., CardinaleB.J., AllingtonG.R.H., ByrnesJ., EndsleyK.A., BrownD.G., HooperD.U., IsbellF., O'ConnorM.I. and LoreauM.2016. ‘Estimating local biodiversity change: A critique of papers claiming no net loss of local diversity’. Ecology97 (8): 1949–1960. Crossref
20.
HallettL.M., HsuJ.S., ClelandE.E., CollinsS.L., DicksonT.L., FarrerE.C., GherardiL.A.. 2014. ‘Biotic mechanisms of community stability shift along a precipitation gradient’. Ecology95 (6): 1693–1700. Crossref
21.
HautierY., TilmanD., IsbellF., SeabloomE.W., BorerE.T. and ReichP.B.2015. ‘Anthropogenic environmental changes affect ecosystem stability via biodiversity’. Science348 (6232): 336–340. Crossref
22.
HectorA., HautierY., SanerP., WackerL., BagchiR., JoshiJ., Scherer-LorenzenM.. 2010. ‘General stabilizing effects of plant diversity on grassland productivity through population asynchrony and overyielding’. Ecology91 (8): 2213–2220. Crossref
23.
HectorA., JoshiJ., Scherer-LorenzenM., SchmidB., SpehnE.M., WackerL., WeilenmannM.. 2007. ‘Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: Reconciling the results of experimental and observational studies’. Functional Ecology21 (5): 998–1002. Crossref
24.
HectorA. and BagchiR.2007. ‘Biodiversity and ecosystem multifunctionality’. Nature448 (7150): 188–190. Crossref
25.
HillebrandH., BlasiusB., BorerE.T., ChaseJ.M., DowningJ.A., ErikssonB.K., FilstrupC.T.. 2018. ‘Biodiversity change is uncoupled from species richness trends: Consequences for conservation and monitoring’. Journal of Applied Ecology55 (1): 169–184. Crossref
26.
HooperD.U., ChapinF.S., EwelJ.J., HectorA., InchaustiP., LavorelS., LawtonJ.H., . 2005. ‘Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: A consensus of current knowledge’. Ecological Monographs75 (1): 3–35. Crossref
27.
JaxK.2010. Ecosystem Functioning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
28.
JustusJ., ColyvanM., ReganH. and MaguireL.2009. ‘Buying into conservation: Intrinsic versus instrumental value’. Trends in Ecology & Evolution24 (4): 187–191. Crossref
29.
KeithD.A., RodríguezJ.P., Rodríguez-ClarkK.M., NicholsonE., AapalaK., AlonsoA., AsmussenM.. 2013. ‘Scientific foundations for an IUCN red list of ecosystems’. PLoS ONE8 (5): e62111. Crossref
30.
LeanC.H.2021. ‘Invasive species increase biodiversity and, therefore, services: An argument of equivocations’. Conservation Science and Practice3 (12): e553. Crossref
31.
LinquistS.2020. ‘Two (and a half) arguments for conserving biodiversity on aesthetic grounds’. Biology & Philosophy35 (1): 6. Crossref
32.
LittleC.J. and AltermattF.2018. ‘Species turnover and invasion of dominant freshwater invertebrates alter biodiversity–ecosystem-function relationship’. Ecological Monographs88 (3): 461–480. Crossref
33.
LoreauM. and de MazancourtC.2013. ‘Biodiversity and ecosystem stability: A synthesis of underlying mechanisms’. Ecology Letters16: 106–115. Crossref
34.
MaclaurinJ. and SterelnyK.2008. What Is Biodiversity?Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
35.
MaguireL.A. and JustusJ.2008. ‘Why intrinsic value is a poor basis for conservation decisions’. BioScience58 (10): 910–911. Crossref
36.
MaierDonald S2012. What's So Good About Biodiversity? A Call for Better Reasoning About Nature's Value. Dordrecht: Springer.
37.
MansonN.A.2002. ‘Formulating the precautionary principle’. Environmental Ethics24 (3): 263–274. Crossref
38.
MarcellesiA.2015. ‘External validity: Is there still a problem?’. Philosophy of Science82 (5): 1308–1317. Crossref
39.
MasonN.W.H., MouillotD., LeeW.G., WilsonJ.B. and SetäläH.2005. ‘Functional richness, functional evenness and functional divergence: The primary components of functional diversity’. Oikos111 (1): 112–118.
McCauleyD.J.2006. ‘Selling out on nature’. Nature443 (7107): 27–28. Crossref
42.
McShaneK.2007. ‘Why environmental ethics shouldn't give up on intrinsic value’. Environmental Ethics29 (1): 43–61.
43.
McShaneK.2017. ‘Is biodiversity intrinsically valuable? (And what might that mean?)’. In GarsonJ., PlutynskiA. and SarkarS (eds), The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Biodiversity, pp. 155–167. London: Routledge.
44.
MoiD.A., RomeroG.Q., AntiqueiraP.A.P., MormulR.P., de MelloF.T. and BoneckerC.C.2021. ‘Multitrophic richness enhances ecosystem multifunctionality of tropical shallow lakes’. Functional Ecology35 (4): 942–954. Crossref
45.
MoriA.S., FurukawaT. and SasakiT.2013. ‘Response diversity determines the resilience of ecosystems to environmental change’. Biological Reviews88 (2): 349–364. Crossref
46.
NewboldT., HudsonL.N., HillS.L.L., ContuS., LysenkoI., SeniorR.A., BörgerL.. 2015. ‘Global effects of land use on local terrestrial biodiversity’. Nature520 (7545): 45–50. Crossref
47.
NewmanJ.A.2020. ‘Biodiversity, ecosystem functioning, and the environmentalist agenda: A reply to Odenbaugh’. Biology & Philosophy35: 17. Crossref
48.
NewmanJ.A., VarnerG. and LindquistS.2017. Defending Biodiversity: Environmental Science and Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
49.
OdenbaughJ.2003. ‘Values, advocacy and conservation biology’. Environmental Values12 (1): 55–69.
50.
OdenbaughJ.2010. ‘On the very idea of an ecosystem’. In HazlettA. (ed.), New Waves in Metaphysics, pp. 240–258. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
51.
OdenbaughJ.2020. ‘Biodiversity, ecosystem functioning, and the environmentalist agenda’. Biology & Philosophy35: 16. Crossref
52.
OksanenM.1997. ‘The moral value of biodiversity’. Ambio26 (8): 541–545.
53.
PatrickC.J., McCluneyK.E., RuhiA., GregoryA., SaboJ. and ThorpJ.H.2021. ‘Multi-scale biodiversity drives temporal variability in macrosystems’. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment19 (1): 47–56. Crossref
SakschewskiB., von BlohW., BoitA., PoorterL., Peña-ClarosM., HeinkeJ., JoshiJ. and ThonickeK.2016. ‘Resilience of amazon forests emerges from plant trait diversity’. Nature Climate Change6 (11): 1032–1036. Crossref
56.
SantanaC.2017. ‘Biodiversity eliminativism’. In GarsonJ., PlutynskiA. and SarkarS (eds), The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Biodiversity, pp. 86–97. London: Routledge.
57.
SantanaC.2018. ‘Biodiversity is a chimera, and chimeras aren't real’. Biology & Philosophy33: 15. Crossref
58.
SasakiT. and LauenrothW.K.2011. ‘Dominant species, rather than diversity, regulates temporal stability of plant communities’. Oecologia166 (3): 761–768. Crossref
59.
SoberE.1986. ‘Philosophical problems for environmentalism’. In NortonB.G. (ed.), The Preservation of Species: The Value of Biological Diversity, pp. 173–194. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
60.
SpehnE.M., HectorA., JoshiJ., Scherer-LorenzenM., SchmidB., Bazeley-WhiteE., BeierkuhnleinC.. 2005. ‘Ecosystem effects of biodiversity manipulations in European grasslands’. Ecological Monographs75 (1): 37–63. Crossref
61.
SteeleK.2006. ‘The precautionary principle: A new approach to public decision-making?’. Law, Probability and Risk5 (1): 19–31. Crossref
62.
TilmanD.1996. ‘Biodiversity: Population versus ecosystem stability’. Ecology77 (2): 350–363. Crossref
63.
TilmanD. and DowningJ.A.1994. ‘Biodiversity and stability in grasslands’. Nature367: 363–365.
64.
TilmanD., ReichP.B. and KnopsJ.M.H.2006. ‘Biodiversity and ecosystem stability in a decade-long grassland experiment’. Nature441 (7093): 629–632. Crossref
65.
TilmanD., ReichP.B., KnopsJ., WedinD., MielkeT. and LehmanC.2001. ‘Diversity and productivity in a long-term grassland experiment’. Science294 (5543): 843–845. Crossref
66.
TilmanD., WedlinD. and KnopsJ.M.H.1996. ‘Productivity and sustainability influenced by biodiversity in grassland ecosystems’. Nature379: 718–720.
67.
VellendM., BaetenL., Myers-SmithI.H., ElmendorfS.C., BeausejourR., BrownC.D., De FrenneP., VerheyenK. and WipfS.2013. ‘Global meta-analysis reveals no net change in local-scale plant biodiversity over time’. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences110 (48): 19456–19459. Crossref
68.
WelchmanJ.2020. ‘Commentary on Jonathan A. Newman, Gary Varner, and Stefan Linquist: Defending Biodiversity: Environmental Science and Ethics, chapter 11: should biodiversity be conserved for its aesthetic value?’. Biology & Philosophy35: 13. Crossref
69.
WoodwardJ.2003. Making Things Happen: A Theory of Causal Explanation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
