Abstract
Muonium (Mu), may be regarded as a radioactive hydrogen atom with a positive muon as its nucleus, and is formed in a range of media which are irradiated with positive muons. This exotic atom can be considered as a second radioisotope of hydrogen, along with tritium. Addition of this light atom (with a mass 1/9th that of a normal hydrogen, protium, atom) to unsaturated organic molecules forms free radicals, in which the muon serves as a radioactive and magnetic probe of their kinetic and structural properties. Suitable examples are chosen to illustrate the very large functionality of organic radicals which have been measured using muons and various methods of μSR, where μ stands for muon, S for spin and R may refer to rotation, resonance or relaxation. The principal techniques illustrated are transverse-field muon spin rotation (TF-μSR), avoided level crossing muon spin resonance (ALC-μSR) and longitudinal-field muon spin relaxation (LF-μSRx). Structural studies of radicals, the determination of mechanisms for radical formation, the measurement of radical stabilisation energies, the determination of the kinetics of reactions of free muonium atoms and of free radicals have all been accomplished using TF-μSR methods. It is further shown that TF-μSR is most useful in measuring radical reaction rates in non-aqueous media, to provide information of relevance to cell membrane damage and repair. Muonium may further be used as a mechanistic probe since it determines a true pattern of H-atom reactivity in molecules, against which results from similar radiolysed materials may be compared. [In many solid materials that are exposed to ionising radiation, apparent H-atom adduct radicals are detected but which originate from charge-neutralisation of positive holes (radical cations) and ejected electrons, without free H-atoms being formed. DNA is the superlative example of this. Free H-atoms normally feature in the province of radiolysed aqueous media]. The applications of ALC-μSR and LF-μSRx in studying the reorientation of reactive radicals on reactive surfaces forms the substantive proportion of the review: considered specifically are radicals sorbed in zeolites, in clays and in porous silica, in porous carbons and on ice-surfaces, in connection with their role as intermediates in catalytic systems, particularly hydrocarbon cracking and oxidation processes, and in atmospheric aerosol chemistry. The formation of muonium and other muon species in cation-exchanged zeolite-X samples are also considered, according to the evidence of longitudinal field repolarisation measurements. Finally, mention is given of the use of μSR techniques for studying radicals in the gas-phase.
Keywords
References
1.
Walker D.C.
(1983 ) Muon and muonium chemistry , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge .
2.
Roduner E.
(1988 ) The positive muon as a probe in free radical chemistry. Lecture notes in chemistry, Springer , Heidelberg .
3.
Rhodes C.J.
(2011 ) Sci. Prog. , 94 , 16 .
4.
Rhodes C.J.
(2011 ) Sci. Prog. , 94 , 339 .
5.
Rhodes C.J.
(2011 ) Sci. Prog. , 94 , 451 .
7.
Carrington A.
, and
McLachlan A.D.
(1979 ) Introduction to magnetic resonance , Chapman and Hall , London
8.
Harris R.K.
(1983 ) Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy , Pitman , Melbourne .
9.
Rhodes C.J.
,
Dintinger T.C.
,
Reid I.D.
, and
Scott C.A.
(2000 ) Magn. Reson. Chem. , 38 , 281 .
10.
Rhodes C.J.
,
Dintinger T.C.
, and
Scott C.A.
(2000 ) Magn. Reson. Chem. , 38 , 62 .
11.
Rhodes C.J.
,
Dintinger T.C.
, and
Scott C.A.
(2000 ) Magn. Reson. Chem. , 38 , 729 .
12.
Rhodes C.J.
, and
Dintinger T.C.
(2011 ) Prog. React Kinet. Mech. , 36 , 287 .
13.
Rhodes C.J.
, and
Reid I.D.
(2002 ) Spectrochim. Acta A , 58 , 1209 .
14.
Rhodes C.J.
2000 ) Magn. Reson. Chem. , 38 , S58 .
15.
Rhodes C.J.
(2006 ) Prog. React. Kinet. Mech. , 31 , 159 .
16.
Rhodes C.J.
,
Reid I.D.
, and
Zimmermann U.
(2002 ) Chem. Commun. , 1092 .
17.
Rhodes C.J.
(2012 ) In:
Lund A
, and
Shiotani M.
(eds), EPR of free radicals in solids: trends in methods and applications , 2nd edn, Springer , Dordrecht , in press.
18.
Roduner E.
(1993 ) Chem. Soc. Rev. , 22 , 337 .
19.
Roduner E.
,
Schwager M.
, and
Shelley M.
(1995 ) In:
Lund A.
, and
Rhodes C.J.
(eds), Radicals on surfaces , Kluwer , Dordrecht .
20.
Cox S.F.J.
(1998 ) Solid. State Nucl. Magn. Reson. , 11 , 103 .
21.
Cox S.F.J.
, and
Sivia D.S.
(1997 ) Appl. Magn. Reson. , 12 , 213 .
22.
Jayasooriya U.A.
1997 ) Hyperfine. Interact. , 106 , 27 .
23.
Jayasooriya U.A.
,
Aston G.M.
, and
Stride J.A.
(1997 ) Appl. Magn. Reson. , 13 , 165 .
24.
Rhodes C.J.
2002 ) Magn. Reson. Chem. , 40 , 421 .
25.
Clayden N.J.
,
Jayasooriya U.A.
, and
Cottrell S.P.
(1999 ) Phys. Chem. Chem., Phys. 1 , 4379 .
26.
Clayden N.J.
2000 ) Polymer , 41 , 3455 .
27.
Christides C.
1993 ) J. Chim. Phys. , 90 , 663 .
28.
Berliner L.J.
, and
Reuben J.
(1989 ) Spin-labelling–theory and applications , Vol. 8 , Plenum Press , New York .
29.
Mazzoleni F.
1988 ) J. Phys. Chem. , 92 , 1953 .
30.
Buettner G.
(1987 ) Free radical biology and medicine , Vol. 3 , 259 .
31.
Rhodes C.
J, and
Symons M.C.R.
(1988 ) J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1, 84 , 1187 .
32.
Poole C.P.
, and
Farach H.A.
(1994 ) Handbook of electron spin resonance , p. 371 . AIP Press , New York .
33.
Malatesta V.
, and
Ingold K.U.
(1973 ) J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 95 , 6404 .
34.
Petillo P.A.
,
De Felippis J.
, and
Nelsen S.F.
(1991 ) J. Org. Chem. , 56 , 6496 .
35.
Rhodes C.J.
, and
Lund A.
(1995 ) Radicals on surfaces , p. 259 . Kluwer , Dordrecht .
36.
Lozos G.P.
, and
Hoffmann B.M.
(1974 ) J. Phys. Chem. , 78 , 2110 .
37.
Golubev V.B.
,
Lunina E.V.
, and
Selivanovskii A.K.
(1981 ) Russ. Chem. Rev. , 50 , 421 .
38.
Ramos M.J.
1984 ) J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1 , 80 , 255 .
39.
Ramos M.J.
1984 ) J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1 , 80 , 267 .
40.
McKenzie I.
2007 ) J. Phys. Chem. A, 111 , 10625 .
41.
Roduner E.
, and
Reid I.D.
(1989 ) Israel J. Chem. , 29 , 3 .
42.
Claxton T.A.
, and
Graham A.M.
(1987 ) J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 2 , 83 , 2307 .
43.
Geeson D.A.
1986 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 32 , 769 .
44.
Rhodes C.J.
1987 ) Chem. Commun. , 448 .
45.
Bowles A.J.
,
Hudson A.
, and
Jackson R.A.
(1970 ) Chem. Phys. Lett. , 5 , 552 .
46.
Ji F.
(1994 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 87 , 853 .
47.
Lloyd R.V.
, and
Wood D.E.
(1977 ) J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 99 , 8269 .
48.
Ogawa S.
, and
Fessenden R.W.
(1964 ) J. Chem. Phys. , 41 , 994 .
49.
Rhodes C.J.
, and
Roduner E.
(1991 ) J. Chem. Res. (S), 196 .
50.
Reid I.D.
,
Rhodes C.J.
, and
Roduner E.
(1992 ) Tetrahedron Lett. , 33 , 5617 .
51.
Lloyd R.V.
, and
Williams R.V.
(1985 ) J. Phys. Chem. , 89 , 5379 .
52.
Roberts B.P.
(1991 ) Tetrahedron Lett. , 5385 .
53.
Whiffen D.H.
(1963 ) Mol. Phys. , 6 , 223 .
54.
Roduner E.
,
Brinkman G.A.
, and
Louwrier P.W.F.
(1984 ) Chem. Phys. , 88 , 143 .
55.
Kiefl R.F.
1988 ) Chem. Phys. Lett. , 143 , 613 .
56.
Rhodes C.J.
, and
Roduner E.
(1990 ) Chem. Phys. Lett. , 171 , 457 .
57.
Ricco M.
1986 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 32 , 757 .
58.
Macrae R.M.
1996 ) Chem. Phys. Lett. , 259 , 103 .
59.
Rhodes C.J.
, and
Symons M.C.R.
(1996 ) Magn. Reson. Chem. , 34 , 631 .
60.
Buttar D.
1990 ) J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans , 86 , 220 .
61.
Macrae R.M.
,
Webster B.C.
, and
Roduner E.
(1988 ) Muon studies in solid state physics , IOP Short Meetings no. 22, 95 .
62.
Hill A.
1984 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 17-19 , 815 .
63.
Cox S.F.J.
1986 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 32 , 763 .
64.
Venkateswaran K.
1988 ) Chem. Phys. Lett. , 145 , 289 .
65.
Heming M.
1986 ) Chem. Phys. Lett. , 128 , 100 .
66.
Buttar D.
1990 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 65 , 927 .
67.
Aston G.M.
1997 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 106 , 157 .
68.
Rhodes C.J.
,
Hinds C.S.
, and
Reid I.D.
(1996 ) J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. , 92 , 4265 .
69.
Rhodes C.J.
,
Reid I.D.
, and
Jackson R.A.
(1997 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 106 , 193 .
70.
Rhodes C.J.
,
Macrae R.M.
, and
Reid I.D.
(1999 ) J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. , 2157 .
71.
Knauer B.R.
, and
Napier J.J.
(1976 ) J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 98 , 4395 .
72.
Aston G.M.
1997 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 106 , 157 .
73.
Rhodes C.J.
,
Symons M.C.R.
, and
Roduner E.
(1988 ) J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. , 3 .
74.
Rhodes C.J.
2000 ) Magn. Reson. Chem. , 38 , S49 .
75.
Macrae R.M.
, and
Carmichael I.
(2001 ) J. Phys. Chem. A , 105 , 3641 .
76.
Rhodes C.J.
,
Morris H.
, and
Reid I.D.
(1995 ) J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2∼ , 2107 .
77.
Louwrier P.W.F.
1986 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 32 , 753 .
78.
Rhodes C.J.
1997 ) Magn. Reson. Chem. , 35 , 687 .
79.
Walker D.C.
(1998 ) J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. , 94 , 1 .
80.
Wu Z.
1991 ) J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 113 , 9096 .
81.
Wu Z.
,
Stadlbauer J.M.
, and
Walker D.C.
(1992 ) J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 114 , 3988 .
82.
Zeldes H.
, and
Livingston R.
(1972 ) J. Phys. Chem. , 76 , 3348 .
83.
Neta P.
, and
Schuler R.H.
(1972 ) J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 94 , 1056 .
84.
Gelabert R.
,
Moreno M.
, and
Lluch J.M.
(1994 ) J. Phys. Chem. , 98 , 7858 .
85.
Berndt A.
(1989 ) in Landolt-Bornstein, magnetic properties of free radicals, new series II/17c , p. 127 . Springer-Verlag , Berlin .
86.
Ronfard Haret J.C.
,
Lablache Combier A.
, and
Chachaty C.
(1974 ) J. Phys. Chem. , 78 , 899 .
87.
Bower H.J.
,
McRae J.A.
, and
Symons M.C.R.
(1968 ) J. Chem. Soc. (A), 1918 .
88.
Rhodes C.J.
,
Morris H.
, and
Reid I.D.
(2001 ) Magn. Reson. Chem. , 39 , 438 .
89.
Rhodes C.J.
,
Morris H.
, and
Reid I.D.
(1996 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 106 , 233 .
90.
Dust J.M.
, and
Arnold D.R.
(1983 ) J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 105 , 1221 ; 6531.
91.
Arnold D.R.
(1986 ) In:
Viehe H.G.
,
Janousek J.
, and
Merenyi R.
(eds), Substituent effects in radical chemistry , D. Reidel , Dordrecht .
92.
Nicholas A.M.
de.P, and
Arnold D.M.
(1986 ) Can. J. Chem. , 64 , 270 .
93.
Roduner E.
(1986 ) Radiat. Phys. Chem. , 28 , 75 .
94.
Swallow A.J.
(1978 ) Prog. React. Kinet. , 9 , 195 .
95.
Grimmett M.R.
(1970 ) Adv. Heterocycl. Chem. , 12 , 103 .
96.
Lamotte B.
(1968 ) PhD thesis , University of Grenoble .
97.
Lamotte B.
, and
Gloux B.
(1973 ) J. Chem. Phys. , 59 , 3365 .
98.
Rhodes C.J.
, and
Roduner E.
(1991 ) J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. , 87 , 1497 .
99.
Roduner E.
, and
Webster B.
(1983 ) J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1, 79 , 1939 .
100.
Roduner E.
(1984 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 17-19 , 785 .
101.
Stadlbauer J.M.
1994 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 87 , 877 .
102.
McKenzie I.
2009 ) Physica B , 404 638 .
103.
Bucci C.
1979 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 6 , 425 .
104.
Barnabas M.V.
1991 ) J. Phys. Chem. , 95 , 10204 .
105.
Rhodes C.J.
,
Hinds C.S.
, and
Morris H.
unpublished results.
106.
Von Sonntag C.
(1987 ) The chemical basis of radiation biology , Taylor and Francis , London .
107.
Baq Z.M.
, and
Alexander P.
(1966 ) Fundamentals of radiobiology , Pergamon , Oxford .
108.
Tubiana M.
,
Dutreix J.
, and
Wambersie A.
(1990 ) Introduction to radiobiology , Taylor and Francis , London .
109.
Hubbard P.L.
2004 ) J. Phys. Chem. A , 108 , 9302 .
110.
Hubbard P.L.
2006 ) Physica B–Cond. Matter , 374 , 437 .
111.
Barker S.A.
2006 ) Physica B–Cond.Matter , 374 , 332 .
112.
Muller S.N.
1997 ) J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 119 , 2795 .
113.
Halliwell B.
, and
Gutteridge J.M.G.
(1989 ) Free radicals in biology and medicine , Clarendon Press , Oxford .
114.
Rhodes C.J.
2000 ) Magn. Reson. Chem. , 38 , 646 .
115.
Mukai K.
1993 ) Biochim. Biophys. Acta , 1157 , 313 .
116.
Mukai K.
,
Itoh S.
, and
Morimoto H.
(1992 ) J. Biol. Chem. 267 , 22277 .
117.
Mann J.
(1978 ) Secondary metabolism , Clarendon Press , Oxford .
118.
Kelly G.S.
(1999 ) Alt. Med. Rev. , 4 , 29 .
119.
Rhodes C.J.
2000 ) Free Rad. Res. 33 , 75 .
120.
Wolpher H.
2004 ) Catal. Today , 98 , 529 .
121.
Krusic P.J.
,
Meakin P.
, and
Jesson J.P.
(1971 ) J. Phys. Chem. 75 , 3438 .
122.
Golde G.
,
Mobius
, and
Kaminski W.
(1969 ) Z. Naturforsch. (A) , 24 , 1214 .
123.
Finlayson-Pitts B.J.
, and
Pitts J.N.
Jr.
(2000 ) Chemistry of the upper and lower atmosphere. Academic Press , London
124.
Van Dingenen R.
1994 ) J. Atmos. Chem. , 18 , 211 .
125.
Wuebbles D.J.
(1983 ) J. Geophys. Res. , 88 , 1433 .
126.
Tegen I.
, and
Fung I.
(1994 ) J. Geophys. Res. , 99 , 22897 .
127.
Jacobs P.H.
, and
Forstner U.
(1999 ) Water. Res. , 33 , 2083 .
128.
Townsend R.P.
(1980 ) Properties and applications of zeolites , Chemical Society , London .
129.
Lund A.
, and
Rhodes C.J.
(1985 ) Radicals on surfaces , Kluwer , Dordrecht .
130.
Laszlo P.
(1987 ) Science , 233 , 1473 .
131.
Hester R.H.
, and
Harrison R.M.
(1995 ) Volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere , Royal Society of Chemistry , Cambridge .
132.
Clarke J.K.A.
1986 ) J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. , 425 .
133.
Heming M.
, and
Roduner E.
(1987 ) Surf. Sci. 189 , 535 .
134.
Rhodes C.J.
,
Roduner E.
, and
Reid I.D.
(1993 ) J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. , 512 .
135.
Rhodes C.J.
1995 ) Magn. Reson. Chem. 33 , S134 .
136.
Kochi J.K.
(1975 ) Adv. Free Rad. Chem. , 5 , 189 .
137.
Huheey J.E.
(1978 ) Inorganic chemistry, principles of structure and reactivity , Harper and Row , New York .
138.
Tyrrell H.J.V.
, and
Harris K.R.
(1984 ) Diffusion in liquids , Butterworths , London .
139.
Roduner E.
1995 ) Ber. Bunsenges . Phys. Chem. , 99 , 1338 .
140.
Karger J.
, and
Ruthven D.M.
(1992 ) Diffusion in zeolites–and other microporous solids , Wiley , New York
141.
Barrer R.M.
(1978 ) Zeolites and clay minerals , Academic Press , London
142.
Hepp M.A.
1992 ) J. Phys. Chem. , 96 , 2629 .
143.
Roduner E.
(1990 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 65 , 857 .
144.
Harrison S.R.
,
Pilkington P.S.
, and
Sutcliffe L.H.
(1984 ) J. Chem. Soc. Faraday. Trans. 1, 80 , 669 .
145.
Nagy J.B.
1983 ) J. Phys. Chem. , 87 , 833 .
146.
Eckman R.R.
, and
Vega A.J.
(1986 ) J. Phys. Chem. , 90 , 4679 .
147.
Kustanovich I.
1988 ) J. Phys. Chem. , 92 , 4134 .
148.
Rhodes C.J.
(2006 ) Prog. React. Kinet. Mech. , 31 , 139 .
149.
Bansal R.C.
,
Donnet J.B.
, and
Stoeckli F.
(1988 ) Active carbon. Marcel Dekker, Inc. , New York
150.
Stolmar M.
, and
Roduner E.
(1998 ) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 120 , 583 .
151.
Zibrowius B.
,
Caro J.
, and
Pfeifer H.
(1988 ) J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1., 84 , 2347 .
152.
Roduner E.
, and
Dilger H.
(2001 ) J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 123 , 7717 .
153.
Roduner E.
1998 ) J. Phys. Chem. A , 102 , 7591 .
154.
Stolmar M.
1997 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 106 , 51 .
155.
Roduner E.
,
Crockett R.
, and
Wu L.-M.
(1993 ) J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. , 89 , 2101 .
156.
Webster B.C.
, and
Macrae R.M.
(2000 ) Physica B. 289-290 , 598 .
157.
Fleming D.G.
2000 ) Physica B , 289 , 603 .
158.
Fleming D.G.
2002 ) J. Phys. Chem. B , 106 , 6395
159.
Rhodes C.J.
,
Morris H.
, and
Reid I.D.
(2001 ) Magn. Reson. Chem. , 39 , 438 .
160.
McKenzie I.
2009 ) Physica B, 2009 , 404 , 638 .
161.
Bridges M.D.
2007 ) J. Phys. Chem. , 111 , 9779 .
162.
Roduner E.
,
Brinkman G.A.
, and
Louwrier P.W.F.
(1982 ) Chem. Phys. , 73 , 117 .
163.
Reid I.D.
,
Azuma T.
, and
Roduner E.
(1990 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 65 , 879 .
164.
West R.C.
(1985 ) CRC handbook of chemistry and physics, 66th edn. CRC Press , Florida .
165.
Aston G.M.
1997 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 106 , 157 .
166.
Rhodes C.J.
,
Webster B.C.
(1993 ) J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. , 1283 .
167.
Rhodes C.J.
(2008 ) Prog. React. Kinet. Mech. , 33 , 1 .
168.
Keyser L.F.
, and
Leu M.T.
(1993 ) J. Coll. Int. Sci. , 155 , 137 .
169.
Rhodes C.J.
(2010 ) Sci. Prog. 93 , 223 .
172.
Rhodes C.J.
, and
Dintinger T.C.
(2012 ) Prog. React. Kinet. Mech. , 37 , 103
173.
Gu B.
,
Wang L.
, and
Ewing R.C.
(2000 ) J. Nucl. Mat. , 278 , 64 .
174.
Gu B.
,
Wang L.
, and
Ewing R.C.
(2002 ) J. Mater. Chem. , 12 , 233 .
175.
Nakano T.
2006 ) Physica B , 374-375 , 359 .
176.
Arsenau D.J.
2003 ) Physica B , 326 , 64 .
177.
Patterson B.D.
(1984 ) In:
Chappert J.
, and
Grynszpan R.I.
(eds), Muons and pions in materials research , chap. 10. North-Holland (Elsevier) .
178.
Anderson P.A.
, and
Edwards P.P.
(1992 ) J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 114 , 10608 .
179.
Plevert J.
1997 ) J. Phys. Chem. B , 101 , 10340 .
180.
Plevert J.
1998 ) J. Phys. Chem. B , 102 , 3412 .
181.
Macrae R.M.
Hyperfine Interact. , 1997 , 106 , 175 –180 .
182.
Martini M.
,
Paleari A.
, and
Azzoni C.B.
(1989 ) Phys. Rev. B , 39 , 705 .
183.
Roduner E.
, and
Garner D.M.
(1986 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 32 , 733 .
184.
Dilger H.
1996 ) Hyperfine Interact. , 106 , 137 .
185.
Himmer U.
1999 ) J. Phys. Chem. A , 103 , 2076 .
186.
Himmer U.
, and
Roduner E.
(2000 ) Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. , 2 , 339 .
187.
Dilger H.
1996 ) J. Phys. Chem. , 100 , 6561 .
188.
Dilger H.
1997 ) Ber. Bunsen-Ges. Phys. Chem. , 101 , 956 .
189.
Dilger H.
1998 ) J. Phys. Chem. A , 102 , 6772 .
190.
Pritchard O.
(1975 ) Specialist periodical reports, reaction kinetics , Vol. 1 , Royal Chemical Society , London .