Zinc is an indispensable trace element and is a constituent of more than 200 enzymes. It can assure the stability of biological molecules such as DNA, or biological structures such as membranes or ribosomes. It is not surprising, therefore, that, compared with zinc toxicity, zinc deficiency is a much more frequent risk. Few acute toxic effects have been ascribed to zinc and no long-term effects were found after single or prolonged exposure at doses below 1 g/kg of food. Zinc is neither mutagenic nor carcinogenic, although its levels may influence tumor growth. Zinc appears not to be teratogenic but, on the contrary, deleterious action on zinc deficiency on the developing organisms is well documented.
References
1.
1. Ohnesorge, K.F., and Wilhelm, M. (1989). Zinc. In: ZincE. Merian (ed.). Weinheim, Germany: Verlagsgesellschaft, Chaps. 2, 36 (in press).
2.
2. Furst, A. (1977). Inorganic agents as carcinogens. In: Inorganic agents as carcinogens, Vol. 3. M.A. Kraybill and N.A. Mehlman (eds.). Washington, Dc: Hemisphere Publ. Co., pp. 209–229
3.
3. Furst, A., and Haro, R. T. (1969). A survey of metal carcinogenesis.Progr. Exp. Tumor Res.12, 102–133.
4.
4. Nordberg, G.G., and Anderson, O. (1981). Metal interactions in carcinogenesis: Enhancement, inhibition.Environ. Health Perspect.40, 65–81.
5.
5. Sunderman, F.W., Jr. (1977). Metal carcinogenesis. In: Metal carcinogenesisR.A. Goyer and M.A. Mehlman (eds.). New York: John Wiley and Sons.
6.
6. Sunderman, F.W. (1979). Mechanisms of metal carcinogenesis.Biol. Trace Element Res.1, 63–86.
7.
7. Sigel, H., and Sigel, A. (eds.). (1983). Metal Ions in Biological Systems, Vol. 15. Zinc and its Role in Biology and Nutrition.New York and Basel: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 483 pp.
8.
8. Blazsek, I., and Mathé, G. (1984). Zinc and immunity.Biomed. Pharmacother.38, 187–193.
9.
9. Who (World Health Organization). (1983). Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, Vol 1, Recommendations.Geneva: World Health Organization, 19 pp.
10.
10. Anonymous. (1982). Klärschlammverordnung-Abf Klär vom 25.6.1982. Bonn: Bundesgesetzblatt, pp. 734–739
11.
11. Cec. (1980). Council Directive relating to the quality of water intended for human consumption. O.J. No. L229, July 15, 1980. (Dir. 80/778/Eec).
12.
12. Galloway, J.N., Thornton, J.D., Norton, St. A., Volchkok, H.L., and Mclean, Ran. (1982). Trace metals in atmospheric deposition: A review and assessment.Atmos. Environ.16, 1677–1700.
13.
13. Furst, A. (1981). Bioassay of metals for carcinogens: Whole animals.Environ. Health Perspect.40, 83–91.
14.
14. Leonard, A. (1988). Mechanisms in metal genotoxicity: The significance of in vitro approaches.Mutat. Res.198, 321–326.
15.
15. Baker, R.S.U. (1985). Evaluation of metals in in vitro assays, interpretation of data and possible mechanisms of action. In: Evaluation of metals in in vitro assays, interpretation of data and possible mechanisms of actionE. Merian, R.W. Frei, W. Härdi, and C. Schlatter (eds.). London: Gordon & Breach, pp. 185–206
16.
16. Sunderman, F.W. (1984). Recent advances in metal carcinogenesis.Ann. Clin. Lab. Sci.14, 93–122.
17.
17. Bell, L.T., Branstrator, M., Roux, C., and Hurley, L. S. (1975). Chromosomal abnormalities in maternal and fetal tissues of magnesium and zinc deficient rats.Teratology12, 221–226.
18.
18. Nelson, N. (1985). In: Carcinogenic and Mutagenic Metal Compounds.E. Merian, R.W. Frei, W. Härdi, and C. Schlatter (eds.). New York, London, Paris, Montreux, Tokyo: Gordon & Breach Science Publishers.
19.
19. Olivier, Ph., and Marzin, D. (1987). Study of the genotoxic potential of 48 inorganic derivatives with the Sos chromotest.Mutat. Res.189, 263–269.
20.
20. Michaelis, A., Takehisa, S., Rieger, R., and Aurich, O. (1986). Ammonium chloride and zinc sulfate pretreatments reduce the yield of chromatid aberrations induced by Tem and maleic hydrazidc in Vicia faba.Mutat. Res.173, 187–191.
21.
21. Léonard, A., Gerber, G.B., and Léonard, F. (1986) Mutagenicity, carcinogenicity and teratogenicity of zinc. Mutat. Res.168, 343–353.
22.
22. Iarc. (1973). Monograph on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans, Vol. 2. Some Metals and Metalloid Compounds.Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer, pp. 1–161
23.
23. Iarc. (1980). Monograph on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risks of Chemicals to Humans, Vol. 23. Some Metals and Metalloid Compounds.Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer, pp. 1–438
24.
24. Elinder, C.G. (1986). Zinc. In: Zinc, 2nd ed., Vol Ii. L. Friberg, G.F. Nordberg, and V.B. Vouk (eds.). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publ., pp. 664–679
25.
25. Kasprzak, K., and Waalkes, M. (1986). The role of calcium, magnesium and zinc in carcinogenesis.Adv. Exp. Biol. Med.206, 497–515.
26.
26. Barch, D., and Iannaccone, P. M. (1986). The role of zinc deficiency in carcinogenesis.Adv. Exp. Med. Biol.206, 517–527.
27.
27. Francis, A.R., Shetty, T.K., and Bhattacharya, R. K. (1988). Modifying role of dietary factors in mutagenicity of aflatoxin B1: In vitro effects of trace elements.Mutat. Res.199, 85–93.
28.
28. Wallenius, K., Mathur, A., and Abdulla, M. (1979). Effect of different zincs on development of chemically induced oral cancer in rats.Int. J. Oral Surg.8, 56–60.
29.
29. Rath, F.W., and Enke, H. (1984). Die Wirkung peroral applizierten Zinks auf die Induzierbarkeit experimenteller Himtumoren bei der Ratte.Arch. Geschwulstforsch.54, 201–208.
30.
30. Michalowsky, I. (1926). Die experimentelle Erzeugung einer teratoiden Mi Pbildung der Hoden beim Hahn.Mitteil. Zentr. Allgem. Pathol. Anat.38, 385–387.
31.
31. Nas. (1978). Zinc.Washington, Dc: National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences.
32.
32. Stoner, G.D., Shimkin, M.B., Toxell, M.C., Thompson, T.L., and Terry, L. S. (1976). Test for carcinogenicity of metallic compounds by the pulmonary tumor response in strain A mice.Cancer Res.36, 1744–1747.
33.
33. Huxley, L.S. (1981). Teratogenic aspects of managenes, zinc and copper nutrition.Physiol. Rev.61, 249–295.
34.
34. Da Cunha Derreira, R.M.C., Monreal Marquiegnie, I., and Villa Elizageira, I. (1989). Teratogenicity of zinc deficiency in the rat; study of the fetal skeleton.Teratology39, 181–194.
35.
35. Record, I.R., Dreosti, L.E., Tulsi, R.S., and Manuel, S. J. (1986). Maternal metabolism and teratogenesis of zinc-deficient rats.Teratology33, 311–317.
36.
36. Brownie, C.F., Brownie, C., Noden, D., Krook, L., Haluska, M., and Aronson, A. L. (1986). Teratogenic effect of calcium Edetate (Ca Edta) in rats and the protective effect of zinc.Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.82, 426–443.
