The traumatic nature of spinal cord injury necessitates adjustments for the individual physically, socially, vocationally and sexually, as well as placing great strain on the family. Although one would suspect a high prevalence of psychological disruption following spinal cord injury, there is still much debate concerning the extent of the psychological reaction to such a trauma. This situation can partly be attributed to the lack of systematic research characteristic of most studies in this area. This paper reviews more recent literature which has investigated psychological morbidity in persons with spinal cord injury. The inadequacies of this research are discussed and suggestions for future research and psychological treatment for the spinal injured are provided.
References
1.
TrieschmannR.B.Spinal Cord Injuries. New York: Pergammon Press, 1982.
2.
WoodrichF.PattersonJ.B.Variables related to acceptance of disability in persons with spinal cord injuries. Journal of Rehabilitation1983; 49: 26–30.
3.
WalshJ.Actuarial Research into Physical Disablement. Hunters Hill, Australia, 1989; 3(1).
4.
GeislerW.O.JousseA.T.Wynne-JonesM.BreithauptD.Survival in traumatic spinal cord injury. Paraplegia1983; 21: 304–373.
5.
MacleodA.D.Self-neglect of spinal injured patients. Paraplegia1988; 26: 340–349.
6.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd Ed.) Washington, DC: APA, 1980.
7.
WilcoxN.StaufferE.Follow-up of 423 consecutive patients admitted to the spinal cord center, Rancho Los Amigos Hospital, 1 January to 31 December, 1967. International Journal of Paraplegia1972; 53: 115–22.
8.
GallagherR.M.McKegneyF.P.GladstoneT.Psychiatric interventions in spinal cord injury. Psychosomatics1982; 23: 11: 1153–1167.
9.
PinkertonA.C.GriffinMLRehabilitation outcomes in females with spinal cord injury: A follow-up study. Paraplegia1983; 21: 166–175.
10.
de VivoM.J.FineP.R.Spinal cord injury: Its short-term impact on marital status. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation1985; 66: 501–504.
11.
BedbrookG.BeerN.E.McLarenR.K.Preventive measures in the tertiary care of spinal cord injured people. Paraplegia1985; 23: 69–77.
12.
MuellerA.D.Psychologic factors in rehabilitation of paraplegic patients. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation1962; 43: 151–159.
13.
SillerJ.Psychological situation of the disabled with spinal cord injuries. Rehabilitation Literature1969; 30: 290–296.
14.
KnorrN.J.BullJ.C.Spinal cord injury: Psychiatric considerations. Maryland State Medical Journal1970; 19: 105–108.
15.
JuddF.K.BurrowsG.D.Liaison psychiatry in a spinal injuries unit. Paraplegia1986; 24: 6–9.
16.
SchulzR.DeckerS.Long-term adjustment to physical disability: The role of social support, perceived control, and self-blame. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology1985; 48: 1162–1172.
17.
GreenB.C.PrattC.C.GrigsbyT.E.Self-concept among persons with long-term spinal cord injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation1984; 65: 751–754.
18.
FrankR.G.ElliottT.R.CorcoranJ.R.WonderlichS.A.Depression after spinal cord injury: Is it necessary?Clinical Psychology Review1987; 7: 611–630.
19.
CookD.W.Psychological adjustment to spinal cord injury: Incidence of denial, depression, and anxiety. Rehabilitation Psychology1979; 26: 97–104.
20.
RichardsJ.S.Psychologic adjustment to spinal cord injury during first post-discharge year. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation1985; 67: 362–65.
21.
KerrW.ThompsonM.Acceptance of disability of sudden onset in paraplegia. International Journal of Paraplegia1972; 10: 94–102.
22.
FullertonD.T.HarveyR.F.KleinM.H.HowellT.H.Psychiatric disorders in patients with spinal cord injuries. Archives of General Psychiatry1981; 38: 1361–71.
23.
JuddF.K.StoneJ.WebberJ.BrownD.J.BurrowsG.D.Depression following spinal cord injury: A prospective inpatient study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1989; 154: 668–671.
24.
FrankR.G.KashaniJ.H.WonderlichS.A.LisingA.VisotL.R.Depression and adrenal function in spinal cord injury. American Journal of Psychiatry1985; 142: 252–253.
25.
BrackenMBShepardMJWebbS.B.Psychological response to acute spinal cord injury: An epidemiological study. Paraplegia1981; 19: 271–283.
26.
KempB.VashC.Productivity after injury in a sample of spinal cord injured persons: A pilot study. Journal of Chronic Disability1971; 24: 259–275.
27.
Smith-HanenS.S.Socialization of the physically handicapped. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counselling1976; 7: 142–148.
28.
FrankR.G.ElliottT.R.BuckelewS.P.HautA.E.Age as a factor in response to spinal cord injury. American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation1988; 67(3): 128–131.
29.
NickersonE.Some correlates of adjustment by paraplegics. Perceptual and Motor Skills1971; 32: 11–23,.
30.
GoldbergR.FreedM.The Vocational Development, Interests, Values, Adjustment, and Rehabilitation Outlook of Spinal Cord Patients: A Four Year Follow-Up. Paper presented at American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine, San Diego, 1976.
31.
FrankR.G.UmlaufRLWonderlichS.A.AskanasiG.S.BuckelewS.P.ElliottT.R.Differences in coping styles among persons with spinal cord injury: A cluster-analytic approach. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology1987; 55: 727–731.
32.
DinardoQ.Psychological adjustment to spinal cord injury. Doctoral dissertation, University of Houston, 1971.
33.
ShadishW.R.HickmanD.ArrickM.C.Psychological problems of spinal cord injury patients: Emotional distress as a function of time and locus of control. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology1981; 49(2): 297.
34.
CraigA.AndrewsG.The prediction and prevention of relapse in stuttering: The value of self-control techniques and locus of control measures. Behavior Modification1985; 9: 427–442.
35.
AndrewsG.CraigA.Prediction of outcome after treatment for stuttering. British Journal of Psychiatry1988; 153: 236–240.
36.
WoolR.N.SiegelM.A.FineP.R.Task performance in spinal cord injury: Effect of helplessness training. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation1980; 61: 321–325.
37.
MeyersonH. Sense of Competence in the Spinal Cord Injured-Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Houston, 1968.
38.
SwensonE.The relationship between locus of control expectancy and successful rehabilitation of the spinal cord injured. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University, 1976.
39.
NestorosJ.N.Demers-DesrosiersL.A.DalicandroL.A.Levels of anxiety and depression in spinal cord injured patients. Psychosomatics1982; 23: 823–830.
40.
DunnM.Social discomfort in the patient with spinal cord injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation1977; 58: 257–260.
41.
DunnM.van HornE.HermanS.A Comparison of Three Training Procedures for Spinal Cord Injury Social Skills. Paper presented St American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine, Miami Beach, November, 1977.
42.
RomanoM.Social skills training with the newly handicapped. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation1976; 57: 302–303.
43.
SawyerH.W.AllenH.A.Sexuality and spinal cord injured individuals: A challenge for counselors and trainers. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counselling1985; 14(4): 14–17.
44.
TealJ.C.AthelstanG.T.Sexuality and spinal cord injury: Some psychological considerations. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation1975; 56(6): 264–68.
45.
HalsteadL.HalsteadM.SalhootJ.StockD.SparksR.An interdisciplinary program on human sexuality for health care professionals and the physically handicapped. Southern Medical Journal1976; 69: 1352–1355.
46.
HalsteadL.HalsteadM.SalhootJ.StockD.SparksR.A hospital-based program in human sexuality. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation1977; 58: 409–412.
47.
HalsteadL.HalsteadM.SalhootJ.StockD.SparksR.Sexual attitudes, behaviour, and satisfaction for able-bodied and disabled participants attending workshops in human sexuality. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation1987; 59: 497–501.
48.
BulmanR.J.WortmanC.B.Attributions of blame and coping in the “real world”: Severe accident victims react to their lot. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology1977; 35(5): 351–363.
49.
AthelstanG.T.CreweN.M.Psychological adjustment to spinal cord injury as related to manner of onset of disability. Rehabilitation Counselling Bulletin1979; 22: 311–319.
50.
MalecJ.Personality factors associated with severe traumatic disability. Rehabilitation Psychology1985; 30(3): 165–172.
51.
Van-Den-BoutJ.van SchoonesSon NSchipperJGroffenC.Attributional cognitions, coping behaviour, and self-esteem in inpatients with severe spinal cord injuries. Journal of Clinical Psychology1988; 44(1): 17–22.
52.
LawsonN.C.Significant events in the rehabilitation process: The spinal cord injured patient's point of view. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation1978; 59: 573–79.
53.
MalecJ.NeimeyerR.Psychologic prediction of duration of inpatient spinal cord injury rehabilitation and performance of self-care. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation1983; 64: 359–363.
54.
PelletierJ.R.RogersS.ThurerS.The mental health needs of individuals with severe physical disability: A consumer advocate perspective. Rehabilitation Literature1985; 46: 186–193.
55.
ChipourasS.CorneliusD.DanielsS.M.MakasE.Who Cares?: A Handbook on Sex Education and Counselling Services for Disabled People. Washington, DC: George Washington University, 1979.
