This study examined the empirical base for early childhood (birth to 8) coaching via a systematic mapping review of the relevant literature, including diverse research designs to represent the full breadth of published studies related to early childhood coaching. The systematic review yielded 374 unique studies published between 1987 and 2019 that were coded for type of study design (e.g., causal; quantitative noncausal; qualitative; single-case design); research populations; and reported content, structure, and processes of early childhood coaching. Descriptive analyses revealed that almost half of the study designs were causal (45.99%); over 75% of the studies were interested in the outcomes or experiences of teachers. The most targeted coaching content domains were social-emotional (44.92% of studies) and language/literacy development (43.58% of studies). Reporting on coaching structure was inconsistent across studies. Observation was the most reported coaching strategy during instruction (73.53% of studies), and provision of evaluative feedback was the most frequently reported coaching strategy outside of instruction (62.83% of studies). The review identified the literature base includes a diversity of study designs, and a great majority of studies occur in preschool settings (70.32%). Findings also suggest that a growing number of coaching studies are focused on child outcomes (60.16%). Results indicate a need for more studies that focus on coaches directly as well as research about coaching in infant/toddler programs and in content domains beyond social-emotional and language/literacy.
Al OtaibaS.ConnorC. M.FolsomJ. S.GreulichL.MeadowsJ.LiZ. (2011). Assessment data-informed guidance to individualize kindergarten reading instruction: Findings from a cluster-randomized control field trial. The Elementary School Journal, 111(4), 535–560. http://doi.org/10.1086/659031
2.
ArteagaI.ThornburgK.DaroliaR.HawksJ. (2019). Improving teacher practices with children under five: Experimental evidence from the Mississippi Buildings Blocks. Evaluation Review, 43(1–2), 41–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193841X19865070
3.
Artman-MeekerK.FettigA.BartonE. E.PenneyA.ZengS. (2015). Applying an evidence-based framework to the early childhood coaching literature. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 35(3), 183–196. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121415595550
4.
AtteberryA.BrykA. S. (2011). Analyzing teacher participation in literacy coaching activities. The Elementary School Journal, 112(2), 356–382. http://doi.org/10.1086/661994
5.
BaoX.QuH.ZhangR.HoganT. P. (2020). Modeling reading ability gain in kindergarten children during COVID-19 school closures. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(17), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176371
6.
BartonE. E.PribbleL.ChenC. I. (2013). The use of e-mail to deliver performance-based feedback to early childhood practitioners. Journal of Early Intervention, 35(3), 270–297. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815114544543
7.
BosC. S.MatherN.NarrR. F.BaburN. (1999). Interactive, collaborative professional development in early literacy instruction: Supporting the balancing act. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 14(4), 227–238. http://doi.org/10.1207/sldrp1404_4
8.
Bratsch-HinesM.Cohen-VogelL.LittleM.LindsayC. A.CarrR. (2023). Teacher-child racial/ethnic match from prekindergarten through first grade: Understanding early exposure and outcomes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 63, 145–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.12.004
9.
BrockM. E.Beaman-DigliaL. E. (2018). Efficacy of coaching preschool teachers to manage challenging behavior. Education and Treatment of Children, 41(1), 31–48.
10.
BrunsekA.PerlmanM.McMullenE.FalenchukO.FletcherB.NocitaG., . . . ShahP. S. (2020). A meta-analysis and systematic review of the associations between professional development of early childhood educators and children's outcomes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 53, 217–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2020.03.003
11.
BurchinalM. R.Peisner-FeinbergE.PiantaR.HowesC. (2002). Development of academic skills from preschool through second grade: Family and classroom predictors of developmental trajectories. Journal of School Psychology, 40(5), 415–436.
12.
BurchinalM.ZaslowM.TarulloL. (2016). Quality thresholds, features and dosage in early care and education: Secondary data analyses of child outcomes. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 81(Serial No. 81), https://doi.org/10:1111/mono.12236
13.
CalhoonM. B.Al OtaibaS.GreenbergD.KingA.AvalosA. (2006). Improving reading skills in predominantly Hispanic Title 1 first-grade classrooms: The promise of peer-assisted learning strategies. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice21(4), 261–272. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2006.00222.x
14.
CardN. A. (2015). Applied meta-analysis for social science research. Guilford Publications.
15.
ClarkP.KraglerS. (2005). The impact of including writing materials in early childhood classrooms on the early literacy development of children from low-income families. Early Child Development and Care, 175(4), 285–301. https://doi.org/10.1080/0300443042000266295
16.
ConroyM. A.SutherlandK. S.AlginaJ.LadwigC.WerchB.MartinezJ., . . . GyureM. (2019). Outcomes of the BEST in CLASS intervention on teachers’ use of effective practices, self-efficacy, and classroom quality. School Psychology Review, 48(1), 31–45. http://doi.org/10.17105/SPR-2018-0003.V48-1
17.
CrawfordA.VargheseC.HsuH.-Y.ZuckerT.LandryS.AsselM.Monsegue-BaileyP.BhavsarV. (2021). A comparative analysis of instructional coaching approaches: Face-to-face versus remote coaching in preschool classrooms. Journal of Educational Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000691
18.
CuiJ.NatzkeL. (2020). Early childhood program participation: 2019 (NCES 2020-075), National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2020075.
19.
DavisA. E.ShiversE. M.PerryD. F. (2018). Exploring culture, race, and ethnicity in early childhood mental health consultation: The role of the consultative alliance. Perspectives, 3(2), 24.
20.
de BreyC.MusuL.McFarlandJ.Wilkinson-FlickerS.DilibertiM.ZhangA.BranstetterC.WangX. (2019). Status and trends in the education of racial and ethnic groups 2018 (NCES 2019- 038). National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education. https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/
21.
DesimoneL. M.GaretM. S. (2015). Best practices in teachers’ professional development in the United States. Psychology, Society and Education, 7, 252–263.
22.
DiamondK. E.JusticeL. M.SieglerR. S.SnyderP. A. (2013). Synthesis of IES research on early intervention and early childhood education. National Center for Special Education Research. Retrieved from files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544212.pdf
23.
DomitrovichC. E.GestS. D.GillS.BiermanK. L.WelshJ. A.JonesD. (2009). Fostering high-quality teaching with an enriched curriculum and professional development support: The head start REDI program. American Educational Research Journal, 46(2), 567–597. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831208328089
24.
DownerJ. T.GobleP.MyersS. S.PiantaR. C. (2016). Teacher-child racial/ethnic match within pre-kindergarten classrooms and children’s early school adjustment. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 37, 26–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2016.02.007
25.
DownerJ. T.Kraft-SayreM. E.PiantaR. C. (2009). Ongoing, web-mediated professional development focused on teacher–child interactions: Early childhood educators’ usage rates and self-reported satisfaction. Early Education and Development, 20(2), 321–345. http://doi.org/10.1080/10409280802595425
26.
DownerJ. T.WillifordA. P.Bulotsky-ShearerR. J.VitielloV. E.BouzaJ.ReillyS.LhospitalA. (2018). Using data-driven, video-based early childhood consultation with teachers to reduce children’s challenging behaviors and improve engagement in preschool classrooms. School Mental Health, 10(3), 226–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9237-0
27.
DunstC. J.TrivetteC. M.RaabM. (2013). An implementation science framework for conceptualizing and operationalizing fidelity in early childhood intervention studies. Journal of Early Intervention, 35(2), 85–101. http://doi.org/10.1177/1053815113502235
28.
EarlyD. M.MaxwellK. L.BurchinalM.AlvaS.BenderR. H.BryantD., . . . HenryG. T. (2007). Teachers’ education, classroom quality, and young children’s academic skills: Results from seven studies of preschool programs. Child Development, 78(2), 558–580. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01014.x
29.
EgertF.FukkinkR. G.EckhardtA. G. (2018). Impact of in-service professional development programs for early childhood teachers on quality ratings and child outcomes: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 88(3), 401–433. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654317751918
30.
ElekC.PageJ. (2019). Critical features of effective coaching for early childhood educators: A review of empirical research literature. Professional Development in Education, 45(4), 567–585. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2018.1452781
31.
FawleyK. D.StokesT. F.RainearC. A.RossiJ. L.BuddK. S. (2019). Universal TCIT improves teacher–child interactions and management of child behavior. Journal of Behavioral Education, 29(4), 635–656. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-019-09337-6
32.
FettigA.BartonE. E.CarterA.EisenhowerA. (2016). Using e-coaching to support an early intervention provider's implementation of a functional assessment-based intervention. Infants and Young Children, 29(2), 130. http://doi.org/10.1097/IYC.0000000000000058
33.
Gardner-NeblettN.De MarcoA.SextonS. (2020). “At first I wouldn’t talk so much . . .”: Coaching and associated changes in language-supportive self-efficacy among infant/toddler educators. Early Education and Development, 32(8), 1220–1239. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2020.1823769
34.
GarnerP. W.McLeanM. C.WaajidB.PittmanE. R. (2015). Mentoring and professional development in rural Head Start classrooms. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 23(4), 293–310. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611267.2015.1099868
35.
GastD. L.LedfordJ. R. (2018). Research approaches in applied settings. In LedfordJ. R.GastD. L. (Eds.), Single case research methodology applications in special education and behavioral sciences, third edition (pp. 1–26). Taylor & Francis Group.
36.
GerdeH. K.PierceS. J.LeeK.Van EgerenL. A. (2018). Early childhood educators’ self-efficacy in science, math, and literacy instruction and science practice in the classroom. Early Education and Development, 29(1), 70–90.
37.
GettingerM.StoiberK. C. (2016). Coaching and demonstration of evidence-based book-reading practices: Effects on Head Start teachers’ literacy-related behaviors and classroom environment. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 37(2), 117–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/10901027.2016.1168329
38.
GoldbergM. J.LloydD.SyedG.WelchG. W.CurentonS. M. (2022). A validation study of the Assessing the Classroom and Sociocultural Equity Scale (ACSES) in pre-k to third grade classrooms. Early Education and Development. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2022.2146392
39.
GomezR. E.KaganS. L.FoxE. A. (2015). Professional development of the early childhood education teaching workforce in the United States: An overview. Professional Development in Education, 41(2), 169–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2014.986820
40.
GonzálezM.LooseT.LizM.PérezM.Rodríguez-VinçonJ. I.Tomás-LlerenaC.Vásquez-EcheverríaA. (2022). School readiness losses during the COVID-19 outbreak. A comparison of two cohorts of young children. Child Development, 93(4), 910–924.
41.
GrantM. J.BoothA. (2009). A typology of reviews: An analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies. Health Information & Libraries Journal, 26(2), 91–108. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x
42.
HallL. J.GrundonG. S.PopeC.RomeroA. B. (2010). Training paraprofessionals to use behavioral strategies when educating learners with autism spectrum disorders across environments. Behavioral Interventions: Theory & Practice in Residential & Community-Based Clinical Programs, 25(1), 37–51. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.294
43.
HamreB. K.ParteeA.MulcahyC. (2017). Enhancing the impact of professional development in the context of preschool expansion. AERA Open, 3(4), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858417733686
44.
HardinB. J.LowerJ. K.SmallwoodG. R.ChakravarthiS.LiL.JordanC. (2010). Teachers, families, and communities supporting English language learners in inclusive pre-kindergartens: An evaluation of a professional development model. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 31(1), 20–36. http://doi.org/10.1080/10901020903539580
HeinekeS. F. (2013). Coaching discourse: Supporting teachers’ professional learning. The Elementary School Journal, 113(3), 409–433. https://doi.org/10.1086/668767
47.
HindmanA. H.WasikB. A. (2012). Unpacking an effective language and literacy coaching intervention in Head Start: Following teachers’ learning over two years of training. The Elementary School Journal, 113(1), 131–154. https://doi.org/10.1086/666389
48.
HooverJ. J.Soltero-GonzálezL. (2018). Educator preparation for developing culturally and linguistically responsive MTSS in rural community elementary schools. Teacher Education and Special Education, 41(3), 188–202. http://doi.org/10.1177/0888406417753689
49.
IOM and NRC. (2012). The early childhood care and education workforce: Challenges and opportunities: A workshop report. The National Academies Press.
50.
JacksonB.LarzelereR.ClairL. S.CorrM.FichterC.EgertsonH. (2006). The impact of HeadsUp! Reading on early childhood educators’ literacy practices and preschool children’s literacy skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 21(2), 213–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2006.04.005
51.
JayaramanG.MarvinC.KnocheL.BainterS. (2015). Coaching conversations in early childhood programs. Infants & Young Children, 28(4), 323–336. http://doi.org/10.1097/IYC.0000000000000048
52.
JensenP.RasmussenA. W. (2019). Professional development and its impact on children in early childhood education and care: A meta-analysis based on European studies. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 63(6), 935–950. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2018.1466359
53.
JoyceB.ShowersB. (1980). Improving inservice training: The messages of research. Educational Leadership, 37, 379–385.
54.
JoyceB.ShowersB. (1982). The Coaching of Teaching. Educational Leadership,
40(1), 4.
55.
KnightG. P.RoosaM. W.Umaña-TaylorA. J. (2009). Studying ethnic minority and economically disadvantaged populations: Methodological challenges and best practices. American Psychological Association.
56.
KraftM. A.BlazarD.HoganD. (2018). The effect of teacher coaching on instruction and achievement: A meta-analysis of the causal evidence. Review of Educational Research, 88(4), 547–588. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654318759268
57.
LandryS. H.AnthonyJ. L.SwankP. R.Monseque-BaileyP. (2009). Effectiveness of comprehensive professional development for teachers of at-risk preschoolers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 448–465. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013842
58.
LandryS. H.SwankP. R.AnthonyJ. L.AsselM. A. (2011). An experimental study evaluating professional development activities within a state funded pre-kindergarten program. Reading and Writing, 24(8), 971–1010. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-010-9243-1
59.
LaneC.ProkopM. J. S.JohnsonE.PodhajskiB.NathanJ. (2014). Promoting early literacy through the professional development of preschool teachers. Early Years, 34(1), 67–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/09575146.2013.827157
60.
LangS. N.TebbenE.OdeanR.WellsM. B.HuangH. (2023, April). Inequities in coaching interventions: A systematic review of who receives and provides coaching within early care and education. In Child & Youth Care Forum (pp. 1–31). Springer US.
61.
LedfordJ. R.ZimmermanK. N.HarbinE. R.WardS. E. (2018). Improving the use of evidence-based instructional practices for paraprofessionals. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 33(4), 206–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357617699178
62.
LoCasale-CrouchJ.KonoldT.PiantaR.HowesC.BurchinalM.BryantD.CliffordR.EarlyD.BarbarinO. (2007). Observed classroom quality profiles in state-funded pre-kindergarten programs and associations with teacher, program, and classroom characteristics. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 22(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2006.05.001
63.
LoniganC. J.FarverJ. M.PhillipsB. M.Clancy-MenchettiJ. (2011). Promoting the development of preschool children’s emergent literacy skills: A randomized evaluation of a literacy-focused curriculum and two professional development models. Reading and Writing, 24(3), 305–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-009-9214-6
64.
LowenhauptR.McKinneyS.ReevesT. (2014). Coaching in context: The role of relationships in the work of three literacy coaches. Professional Development in Education, 40(5), 740–757. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2013.847475
65.
MadillR.BlasbergA.HalleT.ZaslowM.EpsteinD. (2016). Describing the preparation and ongoing professional development of the infant/toddler workforce: An analysis of the National Survey for Early Care and Education data. OPRE Report #2016-16. OPRE, ACF, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
66.
MatsumuraL. C.WangE. (2014). Principals’ sensemaking of coaching for ambitious reading instruction in a high-stakes accountability policy environment. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 22, 51–51. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v22n51.2014
67.
MorenoA. J.GreenS.KoehnJ. (2015). The effectiveness of coursework and onsite coaching at improving the quality of care in infant–toddler settings. Early Education and Development, 26(1), 66–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2014.941260
68.
MorphisE. A. (2018). The power of one-to-one coaching: Preparing pre-service teachers for the early childhood literacy classroom. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 19(1), 85–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/1463949117740713
69.
MorrisonM. O.BrattonS. C. (2010). Preliminary investigation of an early mental health intervention for Head Start programs: Effects of child teacher relationship training on children's behavior problems. Psychology in the Schools, 47(10), 1003–1017. http://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20520
70.
MuddJ. M.WoleryM. (1987). Training head start teachers to use incidental teaching. Journal of the Division for Early Childhood, ;11(2), 124–134. https://doi.org/10.1177/105381518701100204
71.
MulliganG.FlanaganK. (2006). Findings from the 2-year-old follow-up of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, birth cohort (ECLS-B). National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES 2006-043). https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2006043
National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2020). Connecting the brain to the rest of the body: Early childhood development and lifelong health are deeply intertwined, Working Paper No. 15. Retrieved from www.developingchild.harvard.edu.
74.
NeumanS. B.KamilM. L. (2010). Preparing teachers for the early childhood classroom: Proven models and key principles. Paul H. Brookes.
75.
NeumanS. B.WrightT. S. (2010). Promoting language and literacy development for early childhood educators: A mixed-methods study of coursework and coaching. The Elementary School Journal, 111(1), 63–86. https://doi.org/10.1086/653470
76.
NoellG. H.GansleK. A. (2014). Research examining the relationships among consultation procedures, treatment integrity, and outcomes. In ErchulW. P.SheridanS. M. (Eds.), Handbook of research in school consultation: Empirical foundations for the field (2nd ed., pp. 386–408). Routledge.
77.
NoellG. H.WittJ. C.GilbertsonD. N.RanierD. D.FreelandJ. T. (1997). Increasing teacher intervention implementation in general education settings through consultation and performance feedback. School Psychology Quarterly, 12(1), 77–88. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0088949
78.
OttleyJ. R.HanlineM. F. (2014). Bug-in-ear coaching: Impacts on early childhood educators’ practices and associations with toddlers’ expressive communication. Journal of Early Intervention, 36(2), 90–110.
79.
OttleyJ. R.PiastaS. B.CoogleC. G.SpearC. F.RahnN. L. (2019). Implementation of bug-in-ear coaching by community-based professional development providers. Early Education and Development, 30(3), 400–422. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2018.1545500
80.
PiantaR. C.LipscombD.RuzekE. (2021). Coaching teachers to improve students’ school readiness skills: Indirect effects of teacher–student interaction. Child Development, 92, 2509–2528. http://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13600
81.
PiantaR.HowesC.BurchinalM.BryantD.CliffordR.EarlyD.BarbarinO. (2005). Features of pre-kindergarten programs, classrooms, and teachers: Do they predict observed classroom quality and child-teacher interactions?Applied Developmental Science, 9(3), 144–159. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532480xads0903_2
82.
PiastaS. B.FarleyK. S.MauckS. A.Soto RamirezP.SchachterR. E.O’ConnellA. A., . . . Weber-MayrerM. (2020). At-scale, state-sponsored language and literacy professional development: Impacts on early childhood classroom practices and children’s outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(2), 329–343. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000380
83.
PiastaS. B.JusticeL. M.O’ConnellA. A.MauckS. A.Weber-MayrerM.SchachterR. E.. . . SpearC. F. (2017). Effectiveness of large-scale, state-sponsored language and literacy professional development on large-scale, state-sponsored language and literacy professional development on early childhood educator outcomes. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 10(2), 354–378. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2016.1270378
84.
PiastaS. B.PelattiC. Y.MillerH. L. (2014). Mathematics and science learning opportunities in preschool classrooms. Early Education and Development, 25(4), 445–468.
85.
PowellD. R.DiamondK. E. (2013). Implementation fidelity of a coaching-based professional development program for improving Head Start teachers’ literacy and language instruction. Journal of Early Intervention, 35(2), 102–128. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815113516678
86.
Pozo-RicoT.PovedaR.Gutiérrez-FresnedaR.CastejónJ.-L.Gilar-CorbiR. (2023). Revamping teacher training for challenging times: Teachers’ well-being, resilience, emotional intelligence, and innovative methodologies as key teaching competencies. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 16, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S382572
RedfordJ.DesrochersD.HoyerK. M. (2017). The years before school: Children’s nonparental care arrangements from 2001 to 2012. Stats in Brief. NCES 2017-096. National Center for Education Statistics. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED573320.pdf.
89.
RushD. D.SheldenM. L. (2011). The early childhood coaching handbook. Brookes.
90.
SailorsM.PriceL. (2015). Support for the Improvement of Practices through Intensive Coaching (SIPIC): A model of coaching for improving reading instruction and reading achievement. Teaching and Teacher Education, 45, 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2014.09.008
91.
SchachterR. E. (2015). An analytic study of the professional development in early childhood education. Early Education and Development, 26(8), 1057–1085. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2015.1009335
92.
SchachterR. E.GerdeH. K.Hatton-BowersH. (2019). Guidelines for selecting professional development for early childhood teachers. Early Childhood Education Journal, 47(4), 395–408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-019-00942-8
93.
SchachterR. E.Hatton-BowersH.JacksonH.KnocheL. L. (2022) An exploratory study of early childhood coaches’ practices and professional learning needs. Early Years. https://doi.org/10.1080/09575146.2022.2108378
94.
SchachterR. E.Weber-MayrerM. M.PiastaS. B.O’ConnellA. (2018). What happens during language and literacy coaching? Coaches’ reports of their interactions with educators. Early Education and Development, 29(6), 852–872. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2018.1487222
95.
ScottS. E.CortinaK. S.CarlisleJ. F. (2012). Understanding coach-based professional development in Reading First: How do coaches spend their time and how do teachers perceive coaches’ work?Literacy Research and Instruction, 51(1), 68–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2011.569845
96.
SheridanS. M.EdwardsC. P.MarvinC. A.KnocheL. L. (2009). Professional development in early childhood programs: Process issues and research needs. Early Education and Development, 20(3), 377–401. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409280802582795
97.
SnyderP. A.HemmeterM. L.FoxL. (2015). Supporting implementation of evidence-based practices through practice-based coaching. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 35(3), 133–143. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121415594925
98.
SnyderP.HemmeterM. L.McLaughlinT. (2011). Professional development in early childhood intervention: Where we stand on the silver anniversary of PL 99–457. Journal of Early Intervention, 33(4), 357–370.
99.
SonS. H. C.KwonK. A.JeonH. J.HongS. Y. (2013). Head Start classrooms and children’s school readiness benefit from teachers’ qualifications and ongoing training. Child & Youth Care Forum, 42, 525–553. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-013-9213-2
100.
The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 §1116(b)(3); see also U.S. Department of Education. (2006). LEA and school improvement: Non-regulatory guidance. Author.
Vernon-FeagansL.Bratsch-HinesM.VargheseC.BeanA.HedrickA. (2015). The targeted reading intervention: Face-to-face vs. webcam literacy coaching of classroom teachers. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 30(3), 135–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/ldrp.12062
104.
WasikB. A.HindmanA. H.SnellE. K. (2016). Book reading and vocabulary development: A systematic review. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 37, 39–57.
105.
Weber-MayrerM. M.PiastaS. B.OttleyJ. R.JusticeL. M.O’ConnellA. A. (2018). Early childhood literacy coaching: An examination of coaching intensity and changes in educators’ literacy knowledge and practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 76, 14–24. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.07.013
106.
WeilandC.YoshikawaH. (2013). Impacts of a prekindergarten program on children’s mathematics, language, literacy, executive function, and emotional skills. Child Development, 84(6), 2112–2130. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12099
107.
WhitebookM.McLeanC.AustinL. J. E. (2016). Early Childhood Workforce INDEX. Center for the Study of Child Care Employment, Institute for Research on Labor and Employment, University of California, Berkeley (Early Childhood Workforce), 120.
108.
WhitebookM.McLeanC.AustinL. J. E.EdwardsB. (2018). Early Childhood Workforce Index – 2018. Center for the Study of Child Care Employment, University of California, Berkeley.
109.
WildsmithE.AnsariA.GuzmanL. (2015). Improving data infrastructure to recognize Hispanic diversity in the United States. National Research Center on Hispanic Children & Families.
110.
WilsonK. P.DykstraJ. R.WatsonL. R.BoydB. A.CraisE. R. (2012). Coaching in early education classrooms serving children with autism: A pilot study. Early Childhood Education Journal, 40(2), 97–105. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-011-0493-6
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
