24 snake-phobic undergraduate volunteers were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups, three flooding and one placebo. All subjects were provided rationales describing the treatment procedures in either positive, neutral, or negative terms, intended to induce differential expectancies for improvement. However, an analysis of expectancy scores at pre-treatment indicated that appropriate expectancies were not induced. Comparisons between the treatment and placebo groups on all outcome measures (behavioral, subjective, physiological) indicated no differences between groups. In a supplementary study identical descriptions of various procedures were administered to an independent group of 85 snake-phobics, who rated them as equally credible. Another independent group of 18 highly fearful snake-phobics, who did not expect to participate in treatment, rated their expectancy induced by reading one of the three original flooding rationales. The manipulation was successful in altering expectancy in the predicted direction. Taken as a whole, the findings reflect on the typical lack of adequate strategies of assessment in this area of research, and the need to extend investigations to different populations is considered.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
BernsteinD. A.NietzelM. T.Demand characteristics in behavior modification: the natural history of a nuisance. In HersenM.EislerR. M.MillerP. M. (Eds.), Progress in behavior modification. Vol. 4. New York: Academic Press, 1977. Pp. 119–162.
2.
BootzinR. R.LickJ. R.Expectancies in therapy research: interpretive artifact or mediating mechanism?Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1979, 47, 852–855.
3.
BorkovecT. D.Effects of expectancy on the outcome of systematic desensitization and implosive treatments for analogue anxiety. Behavior Therapy, 1972, 3, 29–40.
4.
BorkovecT. D.NauS. D.Credibility of analogue therapy rationales. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 1972, 3, 257–260.
5.
BorkovecT. D.O'BrienG. T.Methodological and target behavior issues in analogue therapy outcome research. In HersenM.EislerR. M.MillerP. M. (Eds.), Progress in behavior modification. Vol. 3. New York: Academic Press, 1976. Pp. 133–172.
6.
CohenJ.Multiple regression as a general data-analytic system. Psychological Bulletin, 1968, 70, 426–443.
7.
DeeC.Learned fear in the context of taped implosive therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1972, 39, 123–132.
8.
EfranJ. S.MarciaJ. E.Systematic desensitization and social learning. In RotterJ. B.ChanceJ.PharesE. J. (Eds.), Applications of a social learning theory of personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1972. Pp. 524–532.
9.
EmmelkampP. M. G.Effects of expectancy in systematic desensitization and flooding. European Journal of Behavioural Analysis and Modification, 1975, 1, 11.
10.
FrankJ. D.The role of hope in psychotherapy. International Journal of Psychiatry, 1968, 5, 383–395.
11.
GauthierJ.MarshallW. L.The determination of optimal exposure to phobic stimuli in flooding therapy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 1977, 15, 403–410.
12.
GelderM.Flooding: results and problems for a new treatment of anxiety. In ThompsonT.DockensW. S. (Eds.), Applications of behavior modification. New York: Academic Press, 1972. Pp. 3–10.
13.
GoldsteinA. P.Patient's expectancies and non-specific therapy as a basis for (un)spontaneous remission. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1960, 16, 399–403.
14.
GoldsteinA. P.Participant expectancies in psychotherapy. Psychiatry, 1962, 25, 72–79.
15.
KazdinA. E.Nonspecific treatment factors in psychotherapy outcome research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1979, 47, 846–851. (a)
16.
KazdinA. E.Therapy outcome questions requiring control of credibility and treatment generated expectancies. Behavior Therapy, 1979, 10, 81–93. (b)
17.
KazdinA. E.WilcoxonL. A.Systematic desensitization and nonspecific treatment effects: a methodological evaluation. Psychological Bulletin, 1976, 83, 729–758.
18.
LangP. J.LazovikA. D.ReynoldsD. J.Desensitization, suggestibility, and pseudotherapy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1965, 74, 113–118.
19.
LevisD. J.HareN.A review of the theoretical rationale and empirical support for the extinction approach of implosive (flooding) therapy. In HersenM.EislerR. M.MillerP. M. (Eds.), Progress in behavior modification. Vol. 4. New York: Academic Press, 1977. Pp. 299–376.
20.
LomontJ. F.BrockL.Cognitive factors in systematic desensitization. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 1971, 9, 187–195.
21.
MahoneyM. J.Experimental methods and outcome evaluation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1978, 46, 660–672.
22.
MarshallW. L.GauthierJ.ChristieM. M.CurrieD. W.GordonA.Flooding therapy: effectiveness, stimulus characteristics, and the value of in vivo exposure. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 1977, 15, 79–88.
23.
MarshallW. L.GauthierJ.GordonA.The current status of flooding therapy. In HersenM.EislerR. M.MillerP. M. (Eds.), Progress in behavior modification. Vol. 7. New York: Academic Press, 1979. Pp. 205–275.
24.
McGlynnF. D.MappR. H.Systematic desensitization of snake avoidance following three types of suggestion. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 1970, 8, 197–201.
25.
McReynoldsW. T.BarnesA. R.BrooksS.RehagenN. J.The role of attention placebo influences in the efficacy of systematic desensitization. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1973, 41, 86–92.
26.
MillerS. B.The contribution of therapeutic instructions to systematic desensitization. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 1972, 10, 159–168.
27.
NauS.CaputoJ. A.BorkovecT. D.The relationship between credibility of therapy and simulation therapeutic effects. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 1974, 5, 129–133.
28.
OliveauD. C.AgrasW. S.LeitenbergH.MooreR. C.WrightD. E.Systematic desensitization, therapeutically oriented instructions,. and selective positive reinforcement. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 1969, 7, 27–33.
29.
WilkinsW.Expectancy of therapeutic gain: an empirical and conceptual critique. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1973, 40, 69–77.
30.
WilkinsW.Expectancies in therapy research: discriminating among heterogeneous nonspecifics. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1979, 47, 837–845.
