This manuscript reviews the adjustment of women managers to the managerial role. The primary focus of the paper is on sex differences in relation to self-confidence, achievement and fear of success, leadership ability, and personality characteristics. In addition, career tactics and career strategies managers utilize to achieve success are discussed. Deficiencies in research, the need for a systematic theoretical framework, and possible future trends are also presented.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AlpanderG. G.GuttmanJ. E.Contents and techniques of management development programs for women. Personnel Journal, 1976, 55, 76–79.
2.
BanduraA.Principles of behavior modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969.
3.
BaronA. S.Selection, development and socialization of women. Business Quarterly, 1977, 42(4), 61.
4.
BartolK.Male and female leaders in small work groups. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State Univer. Press, 1973.
5.
BartolK.The sex structuring of organizations: a search for possible causes. Academy of Management Review, 1978, 3, 805–815.
6.
BartolK. M.Male versus female organizational leaders: a review of comparative literature. Syracuse, NY: School of Management, 1977.
7.
BasilD. C.TraverE.Women in management. New York: Dunnellen, 1972.
8.
BassB. M.KrusbllJ.AlexanderR.A. Male managers' attitudes toward working women. American Behavioral Scientist, 1971, 15, 221–236.
9.
BeufA.Doctor, lawyer, household drudge. Journal of Communications, 1974, 24, 142–145.
10.
BoltonE. R.HumphreysL. W.A training model for women—an androgynous approach. Personnel Journal, 1977, 56, 230–234.
11.
BondJ. R.VinackeW. E.Coalitions in mixed-sex triads. Sociometry, 1961, 24, 61–75.
12.
BrennerM. H.Management development for women. Personnel Journal, 1972, 51, 165–169.
13.
BuonoA.KammJ.On the periphery of the executive suite: marginality and the female manager. Proceedings of the 40th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Detroit, 1980. P. 411.
14.
BurrowM.Developing women managers: what needs to be done?New York: AMACOM, 1978.
15.
CaudreaP. A.Investigation of sex differences across job levels. (Doctoral dissertation, Rice Univer., 1975) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1975, 36, 1957B.
16.
ChambersP.No easy path for women managers. International Management, 1974, 2, 46–48.
17.
CrandallV.Sex differences in expectancy of intellectual and academic reinforcement. In SmithC. P. (Ed.), Achievement-related motives in children. New York: Russell Sage Found., 1969. Pp. 11–45.
18.
CrinoM.WhiteM.DeSanctisG.A comment on the dimensionality and reliability of the Women as Managers Scale (WAMS). Academy of Management Journal, in press.
19.
DeauxK.Sex: a perspective on the attribution process. In HarveyJ. H.IckesW. J.KiddR. F. (Eds.), New directions in attribution research. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1976. Pp. 335–352.
20.
EntwisleD.To dispel fantasies about fantasy-based measures of achievement motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 1972, 77, 377–391.
21.
EzellH. F.OdewahnC. A.ShermanD. J.Being supervised by a woman: does it make a difference. Proceedings of the 40th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Detroit, 1980. Pp. 391–395.
22.
FensterheimH.Behavior therapy: assertive training in groups. In SagerC. J.KaplanH. S. (Eds.), Progress in group and family therapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1972. Pp. 156–169.
23.
FriezeI. H.Success and failure: expectations and attributions. In MednickM. T.TangriS. S.HoffmanL. W. (Eds.), Women and achievement. New York: Wiley, 1975. Pp. 158–171.
24.
GaetnerK. N.The structure of organizational careers. Sociology of Education, 1980, 53, 7–20.
25.
GamsonW. A.Experimental studies of coalition formation. In BerkowitzL. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology. New York: Academic Press, 1965. Pp. 81–110.
26.
GoodeW.Family life of the successful woman. In GinzbergE.YohalemA. M. (Eds.), Corporate lib: woman's challenge to management. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univer. Press, 1973. Pp. 97–117.
27.
HaccounD. M.HaccounR. R.SallayG.Sex differences in the appropriateness of supervisory styles: a nonmanagement view. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1978, 63, 124–127.
28.
HackerH. M.Women as a minority group. In SagarinE. (Ed.), The other minorities. Waltham: Xerox College Publ., 1971. Pp. 30–43.
29.
HedgesH. N.BemisE.Sex stereotyping: its decline in skilled trades. Monthly Labor Review, 1974, 97, 4–22.
30.
HeinenH. S.McGlauchinD.LegerosC.FreemanH.Developing the woman manager. Personnel Journal, 1975, 54, 282–286.
31.
HennigM.What happens on the way up?MBA, 1971, March, 8–10.
32.
HennigM.JardimA.The managerial woman. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1977.
33.
HodgettsR.PryorM.MillsB.BrinkmanC.A profile of the successful female. Proceedings of the 38th Annual Meeting of the. Academy of Management, San Francisco, 1978. Pp. 374–378.
34.
HoffmanL.Early childhood experiences and women's achievement motives. In MednickM. T.TangriS. S.HoffmanL. W. (Eds.), Women and achievement. New York: Wiley, 1974. Pp. 129–150.
35.
HornerM. S.Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in competitive and noncompetitive situations. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer. of Michigan., 1968.
36.
JacobsonM.EfferzyJ.Sex roles and leadership: perceptions of the leaders and the led. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1974, 12, 383–396.
37.
JonesR. E.JonesM. M.Sex differences in the motivation for upward mobility. Proceedings of the Southwest American Institute of Decision Sciences, San Antonio, 1980. Pp. 49–55.
38.
KanterR. M.Men and women of the corporation. New York: Basic Books, 1977.
39.
KillianR. A.The working woman: a male manager's view. New York: American Management Assn., 1971.
40.
KrepsH. M.Women and the American economy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1976.
41.
LannonJ. M.Male vs female values in management. Management International Review, 1977, 17, 9–12.
42.
LarwoodL.Career strategies: findings and implications in fourteen firms. The Management Team, 1980.
43.
LarwoodL.KaplanM.Job tactics of women in banking. Group and Organization Studies, 1980, 5, 70–79.
44.
LarwoodL.LockheedM.Women as managers: toward second generation research. Sex Roles, 1979, 5, 659–665.
45.
LarwoodL.RadfordL.BergerD.Do job tactics predict success? A comparison of female with male executives in 14 corporations. Proceedings of the 40th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Detroit, 1980. Pp. 368–390.
46.
LarwoodL.WoodM.Women in management. Lexington: Lexington Books, 1977.
47.
LarwoodL.WoodM.InderliedS.Training women for management: new problems new solutions. Academy of Management Review, 1978, 3, 584–593.
48.
LenneyE.Women's self-confidence in achievement settings. Psychological Bulletin, 1977, 84, 1–13.
49.
LirtzmanS.WahbaM.Determinants of coalitional behavior of men and women: sex roles or situational requirements?Journal of Applied Psychology, 1972, 56, 406–411.
50.
MattesonM. T.Attitudes toward women as managers. Psychological Reports, 1976, 39, 166.
51.
MattesonM. T.McMahanJ. F.McMahanM.Sex differences and job attitudes: some unexpected findings. Psychological Reports, 1974, 35, 1333–1334.
52.
MatthewsE.Employment implications of psychological characteristics of men and women. In KatzellM. E.ByhamW. C. (Eds.), Women in the work force. New York: Behavioral Publ., 1972. Pp. 27–41.
McMahanI. D.Sex differences on causal attributions following success and failures. Paper presented at the Eastern Psychological Association, April, 1971.
55.
McMahanI. D.Sex differences in expectancy of success and function of task. Paper presented at the Eastern Psychological Association, April, 1972.
56.
MinerJ.Studies in management education. New York: Springer, 1965.
57.
MosesJ. L.BoehmU. R.Relationship of assessment-center performance to management progress of women. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1975, 60, 527–529.
58.
MyerP.Women executives are different. Dun's Review, 1975, 105, 47–48.
59.
PattersonR. A.Women in management: an experimental study of the effects of sex and marital status on job performance ratings, promotability ratings and promotion decisions. (Doctoral dissertation, Univer. of Minnesota, 1975) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1975, 36, 3108–3109B. (University Microfilms No. 75–27, 183)
60.
PettyM. M.LeeG. K.Leader sex-role stereotyping in a female dominated work culture. Personnel Psychology, 1976, 29, 393–404.
61.
PettyM. M.MilesR. H.Leader sex-role stereotyping in social service organizations. Proceedings of the 36th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Kansas City, 1976. Pp. 186–190.
62.
PettyM. M.OdewahnC. A.BruningN. S.ThomasonT. L.An examination of the moderating effects of supervisor sex and subordinate sex upon the relationships between supervisory behavior and subordinate outcomes in mental health organizations. Proceedings of the 37th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Orlando, 1977. Pp. 408–412.
63.
PferferP.ShapiroS. J.Personnel differences in male and female MBA candidates. Business Quarterly, 1978, 43, 77–80.
64.
PoppG. E.MuhsW. F.Fear of success in women in organizations: is it a myth?Proceedings of the 39th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Atlanta, 1979. P. 432.
65.
PriceB.A study of leadership strength of female police executives. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 1974, 2, 219–226.
66.
RiceR. W.BenderL. R.VittersA. G.Leader sex, follower attitudes toward women and leadership effectiveness: a laboratory experiment. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1980, 25, 46–48.
67.
RobieE. A.Challenge to management. In GinzbergE.YohalemA. M. (Eds.), Corporate lib: women's challenge to management. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univer. Press, 1973. Pp. 9–29.
68.
RocheG.Much ado about mentors. Harvard Business Review, 1979, 57, 14–28.
69.
RogalinW. C.PellA. R.Women's guide to management positions. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1975.
70.
RosenA.Mentoring, womentoring and more. Proceedings of the 40th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Detroit, 1980. P. 440.
71.
RosenB.JerdeeT. H.The influence of sex-role stereotypes on evaluation of male and female supervisory behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1973, 57, 44–48.
72.
RosenB.JerdeeT. H.Effects of applicant's sex and difficulty of job on evaluations of candidates for managerial positions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1974, 59, 511–512. (a)
73.
RosenB.JerdehT. H.Influence of sex-role stereotypes on personnel decisions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1974, 59, 9–14. (b)
74.
SandersG.SchmidtT.Behavioral discrimination against women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 1980, 6, 484–488.
75.
ScheinV. E.The relationship between sex-role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1973, 57, 95–100.
76.
ScheinV. E.Relationships between sex-role characteristics and requisite management characteristics among female managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1975, 60, 340–344.
77.
SchwartzE. B.WaetjenW. B.Improving the self-concepts of women managers. Business Quarterly, 1976, 41, 20–27.
78.
SpannM. G.Locus of control as a predictor of academic achievement among non-traditional students in a community college. (Doctoral dissertation, Univer. of Texas, 1977) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1977, 37, 7464–7465. (University Microfilms No. 60:4039)
79.
SteinA. H.BaileyM. M.Socialization of achievement motivation in females. In MednickM. T.TangriS. S.HoffmanL. W. (Eds.), Women and achievement. New York: Wiley, 1975. Pp. 151–157.
80.
SuchnerR.Sex ratios and occupational prestige: three failures to replicate a sexist bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 1979, 5, 236–239.
81.
TaylorS.IlgenD.An investigation of initial placement decisions about women in traditionally male occupations. Proceedings of the 40th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Detroit, 1980. P. 439.
82.
TerborgJ. R.Women in management: a research review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1977, 62, 647–664.
83.
TerborgJ. R.PetersL. H.IlgenD. R.SmithR.Organizational and personal correlates of attitudes toward women as managers. Academy of Management Journal, 1977, 20, 89–100.
84.
Texas Employment Commission. Women in the labor force. Austin: Commission, 1976.
85.
TouheyJ.Effects of additional women professionals on rating of occupational prestige and desirability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1974, 29, 86–89.
86.
TreimanD. J.TerrellK.Sex and the process of status attainment: a comparison of working women and men. American Sociological Review, 1975, 40, 174–200.
87.
TresmerD.The cumulative record of research on fear of success. Sex Roles, 1976, 2, 217–236.
88.
UesgiT. T.VinackeW. E.Strategy in a feminine game. Sociometry, 1963, 26, 75–88.
89.
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. U.S. working women: a databook. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Bureau of Statistics, 1977, 1979.
90.
VeigaJ. F.YanonzasJ. N.What women in management want: the ideal vs the real. Academy of Management Journal, 1976, 19, March, 137–143.
91.
WhiteM. C.DeSanctisG.The effects of additional women managers on ratings of occupational prestige and desirability. Proceedings of the 39th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Atlanta, 1979. P. 431.
92.
WoodM. M.What does it take for a woman to make it in management. Personnel Journal, 1975, 54, 38–41.
93.
ZuckermanM.WheelerL.To dispel fantasies about the fantasy-based measure of fear of success. Psychological Bulletin, 1975, 82, 932–946.