In a series of experiments it was found that rats learn to respond on a free-operant avoidance schedule with no external discriminative stimulus somewhat more effectively when trained (1) with a shorter S∗S interval, (2) with an escape contingency, (3) with a 1-sec. as opposed to a 0.2-sec. shock, and (4) when levers are presented before the first two shocks rather than after them. In interpreting these results, the importance of pseudo-escape behavior is stressed in addition to mechanisms proposed by Sidman and by Anger.
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