Historical development of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) from percutaneous coronary transluminal angioplasty (PCTA) is outlined, along with the progression in the development of coronary artery stents—from the earliest bare-metal stents to drug-eluting stents to the current leading edge of bioresorbable and polymer-free stents. The early, medium, and late complications of PCTA and PCI are explained briefly, and with respect to stent development. Finally, common techniques to remove section stented vessels are outlined.
WeissA.J.ElixhauserA.Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project (HCUP) Statistical Briefs [Internet].Rockville (MD): Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (US); 2006–. Trends in operating room procedures in U.S. hospitals, 2001—2011; 2014 Mar [cited 2015 Apr 13]. Available from: http://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb171-Operating-Room-Procedure-Trends.pdf.
KentK.M.BentivoglioL.G.BlockP.C.Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty: report from the Registry of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Am J Cardiol.1982 Jun; 49(8): 2011–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0002-9149(82)90223–5. PMID: 6211084.
5.
DetreK.HolubkovR.KelseyS.Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty in 1985–1986 and 1977–1981. The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Registry. N Engl J Med.1988 Feb 4; 318(5): 265–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198802043180501. PMID: 2961993.
6.
LevinD.C.GanzP.FriedmanP.Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty with an over-the-wire system. Radiology.1985 May; 155(2): 323–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1148/radiology155.2.3157203. PMID: 3157203.
7.
VenkitachalamL.KipK.E.SelzerF.Twenty-year evolution of percutaneous coronary intervention and its impact on clinical outcomes: a report from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute-sponsored, multicenter 1985–1986 PTCA and 1997–2006 Dynamic Registries. Circ Cardiovasc Interv.2009 Feb; 2(1): 6–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCINTERVENTIONS.108.825323. PMID 20031687
BalconR.BeyarR.ChierchiaS.Recommendations on stent manufacture, implantation and utilization. Study Group of the Working Group on Coronary Circulation. Eur Heart J.1997 Oct; 18(10): 1536–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.eurheartj.a015133. PMID: 9347264.
10.
KönigA.SchieleT.M.RieberJ.Stent design-related coronary artery remodeling and patterns of neointima formation following self-expanding and balloon-expandable stent implantation. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv.2002 Aug; 56(4): 478–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ccd.10249. PMID 12124956.
OrmistonJ.A.DixonS.R.WebsterM.W.Stent longitudinal flexibility: a comparison of 13 stent designs before and after balloon expansion. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv.2000 May; 50(1): 120–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1522–726X (200005)50: 1<120: : AID-CCD26>3.0.CO;2-T. PMID 10816296.
13.
KastratiA.DirschingerJ.BoekstegersP.Influence of stent design on 1-year outcome after coronary stent placement: a randomized comparison of five stent types in 1,147 unselected patients. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv.2000 Jul; 50(3): 290–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1522-726X(200007)50:3<290::AID-CCD5>3.0.CO;2-W. PMID 10878624
14.
HoffmanR.JansenC.KönigA.Stent design related neointimal tissue proliferation in human coronary arteries; an intravascular ultrasound study. Eur Heart J.2001 Nov; 22(21): 2007–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/euhj.2001.2606. PMID 11603908.
15.
HoffmannR.MintzG.S.HaagerP.K.Relation of stent design and stent surface material to subsequent in-stent intimal hyperplasia in coronary arteries determined by intravascular ultrasound. Am J Cardiol.2002 Jun 15; 89(12): 1360–4http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9149(02)02347-0. PMID 12062728.
16.
FishmanD.L.LeoneM.B.BaimD.S.A randomized comparison of coronary stent placement and balloon angioplasty and the treatment of coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med.1994 Aug 25; 331(8): 496–501. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199408253310802. PMID: 8041414
17.
CutlipD.E.ChauhanM.S.BaimD.S.Clinical restenosis after coronary stenting: perspectives from multicenter clinical trials. J Am Coll Cardiol.2002 Dec 18; 40(12): 2082–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0735-1097(02)02597–4 PMID 12505217
18.
ButanyJ.VeinotJ.P.Atherosclerosis: Practical implications for pathologists. Short course presented at: 97th Meeting of the United States and Canadian Academy of Pathology; 2008 Mar 1–7. Denver, CO.
19.
AjaniA.E.KimH.S.WaksmanR.Clinical trials of vascular brachytherapy for in-stent restenosis: update. Cardiovasc Radiat Med.2001 Apr-Jun; 2(2): 107–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1522-1865(00)00081-0. PMID 11340015
20.
HansraniN.OverbeckK.SmoutJ.StansbyG.Intravascular brachytherapy: a systematic review of its role in reducing restenosis after endovascular treatment in peripheral arterial disease. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg.2002 Nov; 24(5): 377–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/ejvs.2002.1742. PMID 12435336.
21.
FajadetA.MoriceM.C.BodeC.Maintenance of long-term clinical benefit with sirolimus-eluting coronary stents: three-year results of the RAVEL trial. Circulation.2005 Mar 1; 111(8): 1040–4http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000156334.24955.B2. PMID 15723977.
22.
ColomboA.HallP.NakamuraS.Intracoronary stenting without anticoagulation accomplished with intravascular ultrasound guidance. Circulation.1995 Mar 15; 91(6): 1676–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.9L6.1676. PMID 7882474
23.
SerruysP.W.van HoutB.BonnierH.Randomised comparison of implantation of heparin-coated stents with balloon angioplasty in selected patients with coronary artery disease (Benestent II). Lancet.1998 Aug 29; 352(9129): 673–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(97)11128-X. PMID 9728982.
24.
KoE.NatsuakiM.ToyofukiM.Sirolimus-eluting stent implantation for ostial right coronary artery lesions: five-year outcomes from the j-Cypher registry. Cardiovasc Interv Ther.2014 Jul; 29(3): 200–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12928-013-0236-2. PMID: 24390936.
25.
GrubeE.SilberS.HauptmannK.E.TAXUS I: six- and twelvemonth results from a randomized, double-blind trial on a slow-release paclitaxel-eluting stent for de novo coronary lesions. Circulation.2003 Jan 7; 107(1): 38–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000047700.58683.Al. PMID: 12515740.
26.
StoneG.W.EllisS.G.CoxD.A.A polymer-based, paclitaxel-eluting stent in patients with coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med.2004 Jan 15; 350(3): 221–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa032441. PMID: 14724301.
27.
StoneG.W.MosesJ.W.EllisS.G.Safety and efficacy of sirolimus- and paclitaxel-eluting coronary stents. N Engl J Med.2007 Mar 8; 356(10): 998–1008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa067193. PMID 17296824
28.
SpauldingC.DaemenJ.BoersmaE.A pooled analysis of data comparing sirolimus-eluting stents with bare-metal stents. N Engl J Med.2007 Mar 8; 356(10): 989–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa066633. PMID 17296825.
29.
KastratiA.MehilliJ.PacheJ.Analysis of 14 trials comparing sirolimus-eluting stents with bare-metal stents. N Engl J Med.2007 Mar 8; 356(10): 1030–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa067484. PMID 17296823.
30.
NordmannA.J.BrielM.BucherH.C.Mortality in randomized controlled trials comparing drug-eluting vs. bare metal stents in coronary artery disease: a meta-analysis. Eur Heart J.2006 Dec; 27(23): 2784–814. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehl282. PMID 17020889.
31.
StoneG.W.EllisS.G.ColomboA.Offsetting impact of thrombosis and restenosis on the occurrence of death and myocardial infarction after paclitaxel-eluting and bare metal stent implantation. Circulation.2007 Jun 5; 115(22): 2842–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULANONAHA.106.687186. PMID 17515458.
32.
KirtaneA.J.GuptaA.IyengarS.Safety and efficacy of drug-eluting and bare metal stents: comprehensive meta-analysis of randomized trials and observational studies. Circulation.2009 Jun 30; 119(25): 3198–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.826479. PMID: 19528338.
MachadoC.RaposoL.DoresH.Second-generation versus first-generation drug-eluting stents for the treatment of patients with acute coronary syndromes and obstructive coronary artery disease. Coron Artery Dis.2014 May; 25(3): 208–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MCA.0000000000000078. PMID: 24419038.
35.
Biondi-ZoccaiG.G.LotrionteM.AgostoniP.A systematic review and meta-analysis on the hazards of discontinuing or not adhering to aspirin among 50,279 patients at risk for coronary artery disease. Eur Heart J.2006 Nov; 27(22): 2667–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehl334. PMID: 17053008.
36.
MukherjeeD.MoliternoD.J.Second-generation drug-eluting stents and the continuous need for rapidly available real-world data. JACC Cardiovasc Interv.2009 Dec; 2(12): 1236–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcin.2009.10.010. PMID: 20129550.
37.
SefaniniG.ByrneR.A.SerruysP.W.Biodegradable polymer drug-eluting stents reduce the risk of stent thrombosis at 4 years in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: a pooled analysis of individual patient data from the ISAR-TEST 3, ISAR-TEST 4, and LEADERS randomized trials. Eur Heart J.2012 May; 33(10): 1214–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehs086. PMID: 22447805.
38.
BangalorS.TokluB.AmorosoN.Bare metal stents, durable polymer drug eluting stents, and biodegradable polymer drug eluting stents for coronary artery disease: mixed treatment comparison meta-analysis. BMJ.2013 Nov 8; 347: f6625. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f6625. PMID: 24212107. PMCID: PMC3898413.
39.
NavareseE.P.TandjungK.ClaessenB.Safety and efficacy outcomes of first and second generation durable polymer drug eluting stents and biodegradable polymer biolimus eluting stents in clinical practice: comprehensive network meta-analysis. BMJ.2013 Nov 6; 347: f6530. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f6530. PMID: 24196498. PMCID: PMC3819044.
40.
MeierP.Bioabsorbable drug-eluting stent: winner or sinner?BMJ.2013 Nov 27; 347: f7091. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n091. PMID: 24284343.
41.
SerruysP.W.OnumaY.OrmistonJ.A.Evaluation of the second generation of a bioresorbable everolimus drug-eluting vascular scaffold for treatment of de novo coronary artery stenosis: six-month clinical and imaging outcomes. Circulation.2010 Nov 30; 122(22): 2301–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULANONAHA.110.970772 PMID: 21098436.
42.
SerruysP.W.OnumaY.DudekD.Evaluation of the second generation of a bioresorbable everolimus-eluting vascular scaffold for the treatment of de novo coronary artery stenosis: 12-month clinical and imaging outcomes. J Am Coll Cardiol.2011 Oct 4; 58(15): 1578–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2011.05.050. PMID: 21958884.
43.
SerruysP.W.ChevalierB.DudekD.A bioresorbable everolimus-eluting scaffold versus a metallic everolimus-eluting stent for ischaemic heart disease caused by de-novo native coronary artery lesions (ABSORB II): an interim 1-year analysis of clinical and procedural secondary outcomes from a randomised controlled trial. Lancet.2015 Jan 3; 385(9962): 43–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61455-0. PMID: 25230593.
44.
PuricelS.ArroyoD.CorpatauxN.Comparison of everolimus-and biolimus-eluting coronary stents with everolimus-eluting bioresorbable vascular scaffolds. J Am Coll Cardiol.2015 Mar 3; 65(8): 791–801. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2014.12.017. PMID: 25720622.
45.
HaudeM.ErbelR.VerheyeS.Comparison of intermediate term late lumen loss after coronary implantation of bare or paclitaxel eluting absorbable metal scaffolds: results from the PROGRESS-AMS and BIOSOLVE-1 trials. J Am Coll Cardiol.2012; 59(13s1): E203–E203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0735-1097(12)60204–6.
46.
HaudeM.ErbelR.ErneP.Safety and performance of the drug-eluting absorbable metal scaffold (DREAMS) in patients with de-novo coronary lesions: 12 month results of the prospective, multicentre, first-in-man BIOSOLVE-I trial. Lancet.2013 Mar 9; 381(9869): 836–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61765–6. PMID: 23332165.
NishioS.TakedaS.KosugaK.Decade of histological follow-up for a fully biodegradable poly-L-lactic acid coronary stent (Igaki-Tamai stent) in humans: are bioresorbable scaffolds the answer?Circulation.2014 Jan 28; 129(4): 534–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.003769. PMID: 24470476.
49.
LiuY.ZhangJ.WangJ.Tailoring of the dopamine coated surface with VEGF loaded heparin/poly-1-lysine particles for anticoagulation and accelerate in situ endothelialization. J Biomed Mater Res A.2015 Jun; 103(6): 2024–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jbm.a.35339. PMID: 25256819.
WangG.X.DengX.Y.TangC.J.The adhesive properties of endothelial cells on endovascular stent coated by substrates of poly-1-lysine and fibronectin. Artif Cells Blood Substit Immobil Biotechnol.2006; 34(1): 11–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10731190500428283. PMID: 16519401.
52.
LiuT.ZengZ.LiuY.Surface modification with dopamine and heparin/poly-L-lysine nanoparticles provides a favorable release behavior for the healing of vascular stent lesions. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces.2014 Jun 11; 6(11): 8729–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/am5015309. PMID: 24731022
WallerB.F.“Crackers, breakers, stretchers, drillers, scrapers, shavers, burners, welders and melters”–the future treatment of atherosclerotic coronary artery disease? A clinical-morphologic assessment. J Am Coll Cardiol.1989 Apr; 13(5): 969–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0735-1097(89)90248–9. PMID: 2522472.
55.
WallerB.E.Pathology of transluminal balloon angioplasty used in the treatment of coronary heart disease. Hum Pathol.1987 May; 18(5): 476–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0046-8177(87)80032–1. PMID: 2952575.
FarbA.SangiorgiG.CarterA.J.Pathology of acute and chronic coronary stenting in humans. Circulation.1999 Jan 5–12; 99(1): 44–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.99.1.44. PMID: 9884378.
SuzukiT.KopiaG.HayashiS.Stent-based delivery of sirolimus reduces neointimal formation in a porcine coronary model. Circulation.2001 Sep 4; 104(10): 1188–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/hc3601.093987. PMID: 11535578.
61.
KlugherzB.D.LlanosG.LieuallenW.Twenty-eight-day efficacy and pharmacokinetics of the sirolimus-eluting stent. Coron Artery Dis.2002 May; 13(3): 183–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00019501-200205000-00008. PMID: 12131023.
62.
VirmaniR.GuagliumiG.FarbA.Localized hypersensitivity and late coronary thrombosis to a sirolimus-eluting stent: should we be cautious?Circulation.2004 Feb 17; 109(6): 701–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000116202.41966.D4 PMID: 14744976.
63.
OtsukaFYahagiK.LadichE.Hypersensitivity reaction in the US Food and Drug Administration-approved second-generation drug-eluting stents: histopathological assessment with ex vivo optical coherence tomography. Circulation.2015 Jan 20; 131(3): 322–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.012658. PMID: 25601953.
64.
NebekerJ.R.VirmaniR.BennettC.L.Hypersensitivity cases associated with drug-eluting coronary stents: a review of available cases from the Research on Adverse Drug Events and Reports (RADAR) project. J Am Coll Cardiol.2006 Jan 3; 47(1): 175–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2005.07.071. PMID: 16386683.
LUscherT.F.SteffelJ.EberliF.R.Drug-eluting stent and coronary thrombosis : biological mechanisms and clinical implications. Circulation.2007 Feb 27; 115(8): 1051–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.675934. PMID: 17325255.
67.
ChenY.X.MaX.WhitmanS.O'BrienE.R.Novel antiinflammatory vascular benefits of systemic and stent-based delivery of ethyliso propylamiloride. Circulation.2004 Dec 14; 110(24): 3721–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000146790.51331.BA. PMID: 15505102.
68.
MaX.O'BrienE.R.Antagonism of the alpha4 integrin subunit attenuates the acute inflammatory response to stent implantation yet is insufficient to prevent late intimal formation. J Leukoc Biol.2004 Jun; 75(6): 1016–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1189/jlb.1203618. PMID: 15020653.
69.
RippsteinP.BlackM.K.BoivinM.Comparison of processing and sectioning methodologies for arteries containing metallic stents. J Histochem Cytochem.2006 Jun; 54(6): 673–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1369/jhc.5A6824.2006. PMID: 16714423.
