I am grateful to Lisa Berlinger, Larry Browning, George Huber, Todd LaPorte, Reuben McDaniel, Karlene Roberts, and Sim Sitkin for comments on an initial draft of this manuscript.
3.
The analyses in this article represent work in progress and are derived from interaction with a group at Berkeley that is concerned with hypercomplex organizations and a group at Texas that is concerned with narrative rationality. The key people in the Berkeley group include Karlene Roberts, Todd LaPorte, and Gene Rochlin. Key people at Texas include Larry Browning, George Huber, Reuben McDaniel, Sim Sitkin, and Rich Cherwitz. The data with which I am working come from observations and interviews with people who operate the Diablo Canyon nuclear reactor, the Nuclear Carrier U.S.S. Carl Vinson, and the air traffic control center at Fremont, California, as well as workshops, literature reviews, and discussions.
4.
PerrowC., Normal Accidents (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1984).
5.
See, for example, BuckleyW., “Society as a Complex Adaptive System,” in BuckleyW., ed., Modern Systems Research for the Behavioral Scientist (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1968), pp. 490–513.
6.
WeickK. E., “A Stress Analysis of Future Battlefields,” in HuntJ. G.BlairJ. D., eds., Leadership on the Future Battlefield (Washington, D.C.: Pergamon, 1985), pp. 32–46.
7.
HurstR., “Portents and Challenges,” in HurstR.HurstL. R., eds., Pilot Error: The Human Factors, 2nd Ed. (New York, NY: Aronson, 1982), p. 175.
8.
Ibid., p. 176.
9.
DaftR. L.LengelR. H., “Information Richness: A New Approach to Manager Information Processing and Organization Design,” in StawB.CummingsL. L., eds., Research in Organizational Behavior: Vol. 6 (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1984), pp. 191–233.
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11.
BiggartN. W.HamiltonG. G., “The Power of Obedience,”Administrative Science Quarterly, 28 (1984): 540–549.
12.
See, for example, WienerE. L., “Mid-Air Collisions: The Accidents, the Systems, and the Realpolitik,” in HurstR.HurstL. R., eds., Pilot Error: The Human Factors, 2nd Ed. (New York, NY: Aronson, 1982), pp. 101–117.
13.
CampbellD. T., “Conformity in Psychology's Theories of Acquired Behavioral Dispositions,” in BergI. A.BassB. M., eds., Conformity and Deviation (New York, NY: Harper, 1961), p. 123.
14.
Ibid.
15.
JonesJ. D., “Nobody Asked Me, But …,”United States Naval Institute Proceedings, November 1977, p. 87.
16.
CampbellD. T., “Ethnocentric and Other Altruistic Motives,” in LevineD., ed., Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1965 (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska), pp. 2283–2311.
17.
PetroskiH., To Engineer Is Human (New York, NY: St. Martin's Press, 1985).
18.
Ibid., p. 178.
19.
Ibid., p. 174.
20.
GallJ., Systematics: How Systems Work and Especially How They Fail (New York, NY: New York Times Book Co., 1977), pp. 32–33.
21.
AllnuttM., “Human Factors: Basic Principles,” in HurstR.HurstL. R., eds., Pilot Errors: The Human Factors, 2nd Ed. (New York, NY: Aronson, 1982), pp. 14–15.
22.
FinkelmanJ. M.KirschnerC., “An Information-Processing Interpretation of Air Traffic Control Stress,”Human Factors, 22 (1980): 561.
23.
CohenM. D.MarchJ. G.OlsenJ. P., “People, Problems, Solutions, and the Ambiguity of Relevance,” in MarchJ. G.OlsenJ. P., eds., Ambiguity and Choice in Organizations (Bergen, Norway: Universitetsforlaget, 1976), p. 25.
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TushmanM. L.RomanelliE., “Organizational Evolution: A Metamorphosis Model of Convergence and Reorientation,” in CummingsL. L.StawB. M., eds., Research in Organizational Behavior: Vol. 7 (Greenwich, CT:JAI Press, 1985), pp. 196, 209–212.
25.
PerrowC., “The Bureaucratic Paradox: The Efficient Organization Centralizes in Order to Decentralize,”Organizational Dynamics, 5/4 (1977): 3–14.
26.
KaufmanH., The Forest Ranger (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins, 1967).
27.
SelznickP., Leadership in Administration (New York, NY: Harper & Row, 1957).
28.
WeickK. E.BrowningL. B., “Argument and Narration in Organizational Communication,”Journal of Management, 12 (1986): 243–259.
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DaftR. L.WigintonJ., “Language and Organizations,”Academy of Management Review, 4 (1979): 179–191.
30.
MorrisN. M.RouseW. B., “Review and Evaluation of Empirical Research in Troubleshooting,”Human Factors, 27 (1985): 503–530.
31.
BrownM. H., “That Reminds Me of a Story: Speech Action in Organizational Socialization,”Western Journal of Speech Communication, 49 (1985): 27–42.
32.
AndersonP. A., “Decision Making by Objection and the Cuban Missile Crisis,”Administrative Science Quarterly, 28 (1983): 211–212.