The role of Jethro vis-à-vis Moses is described in “The Organizational Structure Proposed by Jethro to Moses,”Public Administratıon in Israel and Abroad, 1971 (Jerusalem, 1972).
2.
TaylorFrederick W. (1856–1915) started his work life as a patternmaker and machinist. Subsequently, around 1880, when employed as a gang boss, his innovative thinking led to his important achievements in mechanical engineering (inventing a new method for cutting steel tools) and management. He introduced time studies and wage-incentive schemes in his capacity of a consulting engineer in industry. In 1911, the same year that his book Scıentific Management (Harper) was published, he appeared before the Interstate Commerce Commission. The counsel of this commission was Louis D. Brandeis, appointed as a Supreme Court justice five years later. Brandeis established, on the basis of Taylor's evidence, that the railroads, wanting to increase their rates, could save $1 million per day through the adoption of the principles of scientific management. Taylor was called in as an expert witness, being a management consultant. This was the first formal authorization for the profession of management consultantcy.
3.
The first two studies which enlightened us as to the effects of these factors on the managerial structures were Joan Woodward's Management and Technology (Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 1958) and John Stopford's Growth and Organizational Change ın the Multinational Fırm (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1968). Woodward studied 100 industrial organizations in the South Essex area of England. As only one country was involved, the effects of geographical dispersal could not be explored. Likewise, these organizations were, on the whole, one product-line organizations. Stop ford studied 170 multinational U.S.-based corporations running manufacturing operations in at least six countries, organizations that were geographically dispersed and usually operated several different product lines. Both Woodward and Stopford correlated the different managerial structures with a variety of what could be referred to as scope-of-decision-making factors—number of employees, sales turnover, and capital investment. However, in both cases, the managerial structure correlated mainly with qualitative rather than quantitative factors. Woodward found that the managerial structure correlated mainly with what she called the production system—unit, mass or process production—which is a level of technology-science measurement. Stopford found that the managerial structures in his organizations correlated with the level of all three factors—technology, product and service diversity, and geographical dispersal.
4.
This shows that the so-called Peter Principle (PeterLaurence J.HallRaymond, The Peter Prınciple [William Morrow, New York, 1969]) is not necessarily universal. The Peter Principle contends that when people are promoted to a higher level, they may “ascend to … [their] level of incompetence.” People may well be promoted to a higher level of competence if they receive wider managerial responsibilities, conducive with their managerial characteristics—befitting their leadership, followership, and other interpersonal characteristics.
5.
Perhaps the most revealing evidence of the existence of the two developments in industry, the evergrowing complexity and democracy in the total organizational system, is in the findings of the research carried out in the Western Electric Company at Hawthorne, the so-called Hawthorne experiments (RoethlisbergerF. J.DicksonW., Management and the Workers [Harvard University Press, 1941]). When the research started, it concentrated on scientific management notions, such as the effects of light, color, and working hours on productivity. It turned out that such notions had only a relatively short-lived and small influence, if any at all. The novel findings of the Hawthorne research were all related to what we now call organizational behavior. One of the main findings, the existence of an “informal leader” in addition to the nominal formal leader of a working group, indicates that a democratization process exists in industrial organizations. The informal leader emerges as the choice of the group members and is not formally imposed from the top. 6. Little research has been done on present day scientific management consulting, while a lot of studies have been made on all kinds of organizational development (which is primarily based on a training type of consultant). One of the few studies made of scientific management consulting is Seymour Tilles's “The Consultant's Role,”Harvard Business Review, (November/December 1961). The comparison between the roles of consultants and experts in organizations is based, to a large extent, upon the pioneering doctoral research of Seymour Tilles, which is summarized in his article. This research consists of 12 studies of single consulting projects. Each case study describes the relationship between a consultant and a client for the duration of one project. There are different consultants and clients in Tilles's studies; i.e., 12 consultants and 12 clients. Tilles found that only one such consulting project could be regarded as having succeeded in helping the client. This means that over 90% of Tilles's small sample ended in failure.
6.
See reference 5.
7.
See, for example, LewinKurt, “Group Decision and Social Change,” in MaccobyE.NewcombT.HartleyE. (eds.), Readings in Social Psychology (Methuen, 1947).
8.
This approach to the way in which organizations could be helped by outsiders and the way in which such help is limited will be presented in detail with relevant examples in my forthcoming book, Managıng Growing Organizations: A New Approach to Organizations and Outside Help to Theır Managements (to be published by John Wiley and Sons).
9.
The Informalogram has been described in various places. See WeinshallTheodore D., The Informalogram as an Indicator of Structure (working paper 167/73, the Leon Recanati Graduate School of Business Administration, Tel Aviv University, January 1973); idem (ed.), Culture and Management, pp. 422–424.
