This article explores differences in language development, experience, and use by various cultures. The authors propose that some of the characteristics we identify as disabilities are actually language differences. A lack of understanding of multiple views and the characteristics of various languages can result in both misdiagnosis and inappropriate instruction for many individuals we call “learning disabled.” The authors also suggest that our culture's unselfconscious assumptions about oral and written language and its preference for written language intelligence have, in part, created the category of learning disabilities as a handicapping condition.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AdaA.F. (1988). The Pajaro Valley experience: Working with Spanish-speaking parents to develop children's reading and writing skills through the use of children's literature. In Skutnabb-KangasT.CumminsJ. (Eds.), Minority education: From shame to struggle (pp. 223–236). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.
2.
AllenP.G. (1988). Who is your mother? Red roots of white feminism. In SimonsonR.R.WalkerS. (Eds.), The Graywolf annual five: Multicultural literacy (pp. 13–27). St. Paul, MN: Graywolf Press.
3.
AllenP.G. (Ed.). (1989). Spider woman's granddaughters. New York: Fawcett Columbine.
4.
BohannanL. (1986). Shakespeare in the bush. Natural History, 74–78.
5.
BrosnanF.L. (1983). Overrepresentation of low-socioeconomic minority students in special education programs in California. Learning Disability Quarterly, 6 (4), 517–525.
6.
ClaytonS.(in progress). Language policy, effectiveness and equal status: A change to bilingualism in a small district in California. Dissertation in progress, The Claremont Graduate School, Claremont, CA.
7.
CumminsJ. (1983). Bilingualism and special education: Program and pedagogical issues. Learning Disability Quarterly, 6 (4), 373–386.
8.
CumminsJ. (1984). Bilingualism and special education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy. San Diego: College-Hill Press.
9.
CumminsJ. (1989). A theoretical framework for bilingual special education. Exceptional Children, 56 (2), 111–119.
10.
CumminsJ. (1989). Empowering minority students. Sacramento: California Association for Bilingual Education.
11.
DarderA. (1991). Culture and power in the classroom: A critical foundation for bicultural education. New York: Bergin & Garvey.
12.
EricksonF. (1987). Transformation and school success: The politics and culture of educational achievement. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 18, 335–356.
13.
EstradaC. (1990). Questions about literacy: Considerations in teacher education. Unpublished paper, The Claremont Graduate School, Claremont, CA.
FigueroaR.A. (1990). Assessment of linguistic minority group children. In ReynoldsC.R.KamphausR.W. (Eds.), Handbook of psychological and educational assessment of children: Intelligence and achievement (pp. 671–696). New York: Guilford Press.
16.
FigueroaR.A.RuizN.T.BacaL. (1988). Technical proposals for the OLE model. Davis: University of California.
17.
FineM. (1991). Framing dropouts: Notes on the politics of an urban high school. Albany: State University of New York Press.
18.
FloresB.CousinP.T.DiazE. (1991). Transforming deficit myths about learning, language, and culture. Language Arts, 68, 369–379.
19.
FoucaultM. (1988). Civilization and madness. New York: Random.
20.
FraddS.H.FigueroaR.A.CorreaV.I. (1989). Meeting the multicultural needs of Hispanic students in special education. Exceptional Children, 56 (2), 102–103.
21.
FreireP. (1989, May). Education and the revitalization of America. Address given at President's Forum, The Claremont Graduate School, Claremont, CA.
22.
FreireP.MacedoD. (1987). Literacy: reading the word and the world. South Hadley, MA: Bergin & Garvey.
23.
GirouxH. (1988). Teachers as intellectuals: Toward a critical pedagogy of learning. Granby, MA: Bergin & Garvey.
24.
Hale-BensonJ.E. (1986). Black children: Their roots, culture & learning styles. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
25.
HeathS.B. (1983). Ways with words: Language, life, and work in communities and classrooms. New York: Cambridge University Press.
26.
HortonM.FreireP. (1990). We make the road by walking: Conversations on education and social change. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
27.
KaplanR. (1982). An introduction to the study of written texts: The discourse compact. In KaplanR.B. (Ed.), Annual review of applied linguistics—1982 (pp. 138–151). Rowley, MA: Newbury House Publishers, Inc.
28.
KrashenS. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford, England: Pergamon Press.
29.
KrashenS. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford, England: Pergamon Press.
30.
KrashenS. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. London: Longman.
31.
KrashenS.ScarcellaR.C.LongM.C. (Eds.). (1982). Child-adult differences in second language acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House Publishers, Inc.
32.
KunjufuJ. (1986). Countering the conspiracy to destroy black boys. Chicago: African American Images.
33.
LabovW. (1972). Language in the inner city. Studies in the Black English vernacular. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
34.
MaheadyL.TowneR.AlgozzineB.MercerJ.YsseldykeJ. (1983). Minority overrepresentation: A case for alternative practices prior to referral. Learning Disability Quarterly, 6 (4), 448–457.
35.
McConnellT. (1986). Oral cultures and literate research. Religious Education, 81 (3), 341–355.
36.
Montano-HarmonM. (1988). Discourse features in the compositions of Mexican, English-as-a-second language, Mexican-American/Chicano, and Anglo high school students: Considerations for the formulation of educational policies. Unpublished dissertation, University of Southern California.
OchoaA.M.PachecoR.OmarkD.R. (1983). Addressing the learning disability needs of limited-English proficient students: Beyond language and race issues. Learning Disability Quarterly, 6 (4), 416–423.
39.
OgbuJ.U. (1987). Variability in minority school performance: A problem in search of an explanation. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 18, 312–334.
40.
OrtizA.A.YatesJ.R. (1983). Incidence of exceptionality among Hispanics: Implications for manpower planning. NABE Journal, 7 (3), 41–53.
41.
PattisonR. (1982). On literacy: The politics of the word from Homer to the age of rock. New York: Oxford University Press.
42.
PhilipsS.U. (1983). The invisible culture: Communication in classroom and community on the Warm Springs Indian reservation. New York: Longman.
43.
PineN.(in progress). A comparative study of preschoolers' emergent writing in China and the U.S. Dissertation in progress, The Claremont Graduate School, Claremont, CA.
44.
PoplinM.S. (1992). Making our whole language bilingual classrooms liberatory. In TinejeroJ.AdaA.P. (Eds.), The power of two languages: Literacy and biliteracy for Spanish speaking students. New York: MacMillan/McGraw-Hill.
45.
PoplinM.S. (1992). Multiple intelligence and “underachievement.” Lessons from the learning disabled. Unpublished paper, The Claremont Graduate School, Claremont, CA.
46.
PoplinM.S.WrightP. (1983). The concept of cultural pluralism: Issues in special education. Learning Disability Quarterly, 6 (4), 367–372.
RuedaR.CardozaD.MercerJ.R.CarpenterL. (1984). An examination of special education decision making with Hispanic first-time referrals in large urban school districts (Final Report-Longitudinal Study I). Los Alamitos, CA: Southwest Regional Laboratory for Educational Research and Development.
49.
RuizN.T. (1989). An optimal learning environment for Rosemary. Exceptional Children, 56 (2), 130–144.
50.
ScollonR.ScollonS. (1981). Narrative, literacy and face in interethnic communication. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
51.
ShorI.FreireP. (1987). A pedagogy for liberation: Dialogues in transforming education. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
52.
SilkoL.M. (1992). Presentation to the humanities institute. Claremont, CA: The Claremont Colleges.
53.
Skutnabb-KangasT.CumminsJ. (Eds.). (1988). Minority education: From shame to struggle. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.
54.
SleeterC.E. (1986). Learning disabilities: A social construction of a special education category. Exceptional Children, 53 (1), 46–54.
55.
SmithE. (1986). Ebonics and the standard English barrier. Document prepared pursuant to provisions of Contract #0548-48-3418, Institute of Ebonics, Afro-Asiatic and Niger-Congo Linguistics.
56.
StoneS.PoplinM.S.JohnsonJ.SimpsonO. (1991a). Non-traditional talents of the learning disabled: Divergent music and art. Unpublished paper, The Claremont Graduate School, Claremont, CA.
57.
StoneS.PoplinM.S.JohnsonJ.SimpsonO. (1991b). Non-traditional talents of the learning disabled: Divergent thinking and feeling. Unpublished paper, The Claremont Graduate School, Claremont, CA.
58.
StromquistN. (1991). Adult literacy: Views from the ivory tower and the grass roots. Paper presented at the annual CIES meeting, Pittsburgh.
