Computers are increasingly a part of the lives of young children. This article reviews empirical studies that have investigated the implementation and use of computers in early childhood mathematics, from birth to grade 3. Major topics include general issues of children using computers, the use and efficacy of various types of computer programs for teaching and learning mathematics, and effective teaching strategies using computers.
References
1.
AinsaP.A. (1992) Empowering Classroom Teachers Via Early Childhood Computer Education, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 3, pp. 3–14.
2.
AllenJ.WatsonJ.A. & HowardJ.R. (1993) The Impact of Cognitive Styles on the Problem Solving Strategies Used by Preschool Minority Children in Logo Microworlds, Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 4, pp. 203–217.
BoschK.A. (1993) Can Preservice Teachers Implement Technology during Field Experiences? in EstesN. & ThomasM. (Eds) Rethinking the Roles of Technology in Education, vol. 2, pp. 972–974. Cambridge, MA: Massachuseets Institute of Technology.
5.
BowmanB.T.DonovanM.S. & BurnsM.S. (Eds) (2001) Eager to Learn: Educating our preschoolers. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
6.
BrinkleyV.M. & WatsonJ.A. (1987–88a) Effects of Microworld Training Experience on Sorting Tasks by Young Children, Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 16, pp. 349–364.
7.
BrinkleyV.M. & WatsonJ.A. (1987–88b) Logo and Young Children: Are quadrant effects part of initial Logo mastery?Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 19, pp. 75–86.
8.
BrowningC.A. (1991) Reflections on Using Lego®TC Logo in an Elementary Classroom, in CalabreseE. (Ed.) Proceedings of the Third European Logo Conference, pp. 173–185. Parma: Associazione Scuola e Informatica.
9.
BruerJ.T. (1997) Education and the Brain: A bridge too far, Educational Researcher, 26, pp. 4–16.
10.
CampbellP.F. (1987) Measuring Distance: Children's use of number and unit. Final Report Submitted to the National Institute of Mental Health under the ADAMHA Small Grant Award Program. Grant no. MSMA 1 R03 MH423435–01: University of Maryland, College Park.
11.
CharC.A. (1989, March) Computer Graphic Feltboards: New software approaches for young children's mathematical exploration, paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco.
12.
ChristensenC.A. & GerberM.M. (1990) Effectiveness of Computerized Drill and Practice Games in Teaching Basic Math Facts, Exceptionality, 1, pp. 149–165.
13.
ClementsD.H. (1983–84) Supporting Young Children's Logo Programming, The computing Teacher, 11(5), pp. 24–30.
14.
ClementsD.H. (1986) Effects of Logo and CAI Environments on Cognition and Creativity, Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, pp. 309–318.
15.
ClementsD.H. (1987) Longitudinal Study of the Effects of Logo Programming on Cognitive Abilities and Achievement, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 3, pp. 73–94.
16.
ClementsD.H. (1990) Metacomponential Development in a Logo Programming Environment, Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, pp. 141–149.
17.
ClementsD.H. (1991) Enhancement of Creativity in Computer Environments, American Educational Research Journal, 28, pp. 173–187.
18.
ClementsD.H. (1994) The Uniqueness of the Computer as a Learning Tool: Insights from research and practice, in WrightJ.L. & ShadeD.D. (Eds) Young Children: Active learners in a technological age, pp. 31–50. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
19.
ClementsD.H. (2001) Mathematics in the Preschool, Teaching Children Mathematics, 7, pp. 270–275.
20.
ClementsD.H. & BattistaM.T. (1989) Learning of Geometric Concepts in a Logo Environment, Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 20, pp. 450–467.
21.
ClementsD.H. & BattistaM.T. (1992) Geometry and Spatial Reasoning, in GrouwsD.A. (Ed.) Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning, pp. 420–464. New York: Macmillan.
22.
ClementsD.H. & BurnsB.A. (2000) Students' Development of Strategies for Turn and Angle Measure, Educational Studies in Mathematics, 41, pp. 31–45.
23.
ClementsD.H. & GulloD.F. (1984) Effects of Computer Programming on Young Children's Cognition, Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, pp. 1051–1058.
24.
ClementsD.H. & MeredithJ.S. (1994) Turtle Math. Montreal: Logo Computer Systems.
25.
ClementsD.H. & NastasiB.K. (1988) Social and Cognitive Interactions in Educational Computer Environments, American Educational Research Journal, 25, pp. 87–106.
26.
ClementsD.H. & NastasiB.K. (1992) Computers and Early Childhood Education, in GettingerM.ElliottS.N. & KratochwillT.R. (Eds) Advances in School Psychology: Preschool and early childhood treatment directions, pp. 187–246. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
27.
ClementsD.H. & NastasiB.K. (1993) Electronic Media and Early Childhood Education, in SpodekB. (Ed.) Handbook of Research on the Education of Young Children, pp. 251–275. New York: Macmillan.
28.
ClementsD.H. & SaramaJ. (1998) Building Blocks—Foundations for Mathematical Thinking, Pre-Kindergarten to Grade 2: Research-based materials development (National Science Foundation, grant no. ESI-9730804; see www.gse.buffalo.edu/org/buildingblocks/). Buffalo: State University of New York at Buffalo.
29.
ClementsD.H.BattistaM.T. & SaramaJ. (2001) Logo and Geometry, Journal for Research in Mathematics Education Monograph Series, 10.
30.
ClementsD.H.BattistaM.T.SaramaJ. & SwaminathanS. (1996) Development of Turn and Turn Measurement Concepts in a Computer-based Instructional Unit, Educational Studies in Mathematics, 30, pp. 313–337.
31.
ClementsD.H.BattistaM.T.SaramaJ.SwaminathanS. & McMillenS. (1997) Students' Development of Length Measurement Concepts in a Logo-based Unit on Geometric Paths, Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 28, pp. 70–95.
32.
ClementsD.H.NastasiB.K. & SwaminathanS. (1993) Young Children and Computers: Crossroads and directions from research, Young Children, 48(2), pp. 56–64.
33.
ClementsD.H.SaramaJ. & DiBiaseA-M. (Eds) (in press) Engaging Young Children in Mathematics: Findings of the 2000 National Conference on Standards for Preschool and Kindergarten Mathematics Education. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
34.
CohenR. & GevaE. (1989) Designing Logo-like Environments for Young Children: The interaction between theory and practice, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 5, pp. 349–377.
35.
ColeyR.J.CradlerJ. & EngelP.K. (1997) Computers and Classrooms: The status of technology in U.S. schools. Princeton: Educational Testing Service.
36.
CubanL. (2001) Oversold and Underused. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
37.
CuffaroH.K. (1984) Microcomputers in Education: Why is earlier better?Teachers College Record, 85, pp. 559–568.
38.
DegelmanD.FreeJ.U.ScarlatoM.BlackburnJ.M. & GoldenT. (1986) Concept Learning in Preschool Children: Effects of a short—term Logo experience, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 2, pp. 199–205.
39.
du BoulayB. (1986) Part II: Logo confessions, in LawlerR.du BoulayB.HughesM. & MacLeodH. (Eds) Cognition and Computers: Studies in learning, pp. 81–178. Chichester: Ellis Horwood.
40.
DwyerD.C.RingstaffC. & SandholtzJ.H. (1991) Changes in Teachers' Beliefs and Practices in Technology-rich Classrooms, Educational Leadership, 48, pp. 45–52.
41.
ElliottA. & HallN. (1997) The Impact of Self-regulatory Teaching Strategies on ‘At-risk' Preschoolers’ Mathematical Learning in a Computer-mediated Environment, Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 8, pp. 187–198.
42.
EscobedoT.H. & BhargavaA. (1991) A Study of Children's Computer-generated Graphics, Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 2, pp. 3–25.
43.
Fletcher-FlinnC.M. & SuddendorfT. (1996) Do Computers Affect ‘the Mind’?Journal of Educational Computing Research, 15, pp. 97–112.
44.
FrazierM.K. (1987) The Effects of Logo on Angle Estimation Skills of 7th Graders, unpublished master's thesis, Wichita State University.
45.
GalenF. H. J. V. & ButerA. (2000) Computer Tasks and Classroom Discussions in Mathematics, paper presented at the International Congress on Mathematics Education (ICME-9), Tokyo/Makuhari, Japan.
46.
GélinasC. (1986) Educational Computer Activities and Problem Solving at the Kindergarten Level. Quebec: Quebec Ministry of Education.
47.
GelmanR. & BaillargeonR. (1983) A Review of Some Piagetian Concepts, in MussenP.H. (Ed.) Handbook of Child Psychology, 4th edn, vol. 3, pp. 167–230. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
48.
HallI. & HooperP. (1993) Creating a Successful Learning Environment with Second and Third Graders, their Parents, and LEGO/Logo, in WattD.L. & WattM.L. (Eds) New Paradigms in Classroom Research on Logo Learning, pp. 53–63. Eugene: International Society for Technology in Education.
49.
HauglandS.W. & ShadeD.D. (1994) Early Childhood Computer Software, Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 5, pp. 83–92.
50.
HealyJ. (1998) Failure to Connect: How computers affect our children's minds — For better or worse. New York: Simon & Schuster.
51.
HohmannC. (1994) Staff Development Practices for Integrating Technology in Early Childhood Education Programs, in WrightJ.L. & ShadeD.D. (Eds) Young Children: Active learners in a technological age, p. 104. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
52.
HowardJ.R.WatsonJ.A. & AllenJ. (1993) Cognitive Style and the Selection of Logo Problem-solving Strategies by Young Black Children, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 9, pp. 339–354.
53.
HowlandJ.LaffeyJ. & EspinosaL.M. (1997) A Computing Experience to Motivate Children to Complex Performances, Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 8, pp. 291–311.
54.
HungateH. (1982) Computers in the Kindergarten, The Computing Teacher, 9, pp. 15–18.
55.
HutingerP.L.BellC.BeardM.BondJ.JohansonJ. & TerryC. (1998) The Early Childhood Emergent Literacy Technology Research Study. Final Report. Macomb, IL: Western Illinois University (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED ED 418 545).
56.
IshigakiE.H.ChibaT. & MatsudaS. (1996) Young Children's Communication and Self Expression in the Technological Era, Early Childhood Development and Care, 119, pp. 101–117.
57.
Karmiloff-SmithA. (1990) Constraints on Representational Change: Evidence from children's drawing, Cognition, 34, pp. 57–83.
58.
KieranC. (1986) Logo and the Notion of Angle among Fourth and Sixth Grade Children, in HoylesC. & BurtonL. (Eds) Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Meeting of the International Group for Psychology in Mathematics Education, pp. 99–104. London: City University.
59.
KieranC. & HillelJ. (1990) ‘It's Tough When You have to Make the Triangles Angles’: Insights from a computer-based geometry environment, Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 9, pp. 99–127.
60.
KleinP. & GalO.N. (1992) Effects of Computer Mediation of Analogical Thinking in Kindergartens, Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 8, pp. 244–254.
61.
KrausW.H. (1981) Using a Computer Game to Reinforce Skills in Addition Basic Facts in Second Grade, Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 12, pp. 152–155.
62.
KromhoutO.M. & ButzinS.M. (1993) Integrating Computers into the Elementary School Curriculum: An evaluation of nine Project CHILD model schools, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 26, pp. 55–69.
63.
LavinR. & SandersJ. (1983) Longitudinal Evaluation of the C/A/I Computer Assisted Instruction Title 1 Project: 1979–82: Chelmsford, MA: Merrimack Education Center.
64.
LehrerR. & RandleL. (1986) Problem Solving, Metacognition and Composition: The effects of interactive software for first-grade children, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 3, pp. 409–427.
65.
LehrerR.HarckhamL.D.ArcherP. & PruzekR.M. (1986) Microcomputer-based Instruction in Special Education, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 2, pp. 337–355.
66.
LemeriseT. (1993) Piaget, Vygotsky and Logo, The Computing Teacher, 20, pp. 24–28.
67.
LipinskiJ.M.NidaR.E.ShadeD.D. & WatsonJ.A. (1986) The Effects of Microcomputers on Young Children: An examination of free-play choices, sex differences, and social interactions, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 2, pp. 147–168.
68.
McCollisterT.S.BurtsD.C.WrightV.L. & HildrethG.J. (1986) Effects of Computer-assisted Instruction and Teacher-assisted Instruction on Arithmetic Task Achievement Scores of Kindergarten Children, Journal of Educational Research, 80, pp. 121–125.
69.
MillerG.E. & EmihovichC. (1986) The Effects of Mediated Programming Instruction on Preschool Children's Self—Monitoring, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 2, pp. 283–297.
70.
NastasiB.K.ClementsD.H. & BattistaM.T. (1990) Social-Cognitive Interactions, Motivation, and Cognitive Growth in Logo Programming and CAI Problem-solving Environments, Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, pp. 150–158.
71.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000) Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
72.
NiemiecR.P. & WalbergH.J. (1984) Computers and Achievement in the Elementary Schools, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 1, pp. 435–440.
73.
NiemiecR. & WalbergH.J. (1987) Comparative Effects of Computer-assisted Instruction: A synthesis of reviews, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 3, pp. 19–37.
74.
OliveJ.LankenauC.A. & ScallyS.P. (1986) Teaching and Understanding Geometric Relationships through Logo: Phase II. Interim Report: The Atlanta—Emory Logo Project: Atlanta: Emory University.
75.
OlsonJ.K. (1988) Microcomputers Make Manipulatives Meaningful, paper presented at the meeting of the International Congress of Mathematics Education, Budapest, Hungary, August.
76.
OrabuchiI.I. (1993) Effects of Using Interactive CAI on Primary Grade Students' High Order Thinking Skills: Inferences, generalizations, and math problem-solving, doctoral dissertation.
77.
PapertS. (1980) Mindstorms: Children, computers, and powerful ideas. New York: Basic Books.
78.
PiagetJ. & InhelderB. (1967) The Child's Conception of Space. New York: W.W. Norton.
79.
Poulin-DuboisD.McGillyC.A. & ShultzT.R. (1989) Psychology of Computer Use. The Effect of Learning Logo on Children's Problem-solving Skills, Psychological Reports, 64, pp. 1327–1337.
80.
RagostaM.HollandP. & JamisonD.T. (1981) Computer-assisted Instruction and Compensatory Education: The ETS/LAUSD STUDY. Princeton: Educational Testing Service.
81.
RidingR.J. & PowellS.D. (1987) The Effect on Reasoning, Reading and Number Performance of Computer-presented Critical Thinking Activities in Five-Year-Old Children, Educational Psychology, 7, pp. 55–65.
82.
RosengrenK.S.GrossD.AbramsA.F. & PerlmutterM. (1985) An Observational Study of Preschool Children's Computing Activity, paper presented at the meeting of the ‘Perspectives on the Young Child and the Computer’ conference, University of Texas at Austin.
83.
RyanA.W. (1993) The Impact of Teacher Training on Achievement Effects of Microcomputer Use in Elementary Schools: A meta-analysis, in EstesN. & ThomasM. (Eds) Rethinking the Roles of Technology in Education, vol. 2, pp. 770–772. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
84.
SamarasA. (1991) Transitions to Competence: An investigation of adult mediation in preschoolers' self-regulation with a microcomputer-based problem-solving task, Early Education and Development, 2, pp. 181–196.
85.
SaramaJ. (1995) Redesigning Logo: The turtle metaphor in mathematics education, unpublished doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo.
86.
SaramaJ. (in press) Technology in Early Childhood Mathematics: Building Blocks™ as an innovative technology-based curriculum, in ClementsD.H.SaramaJ. & DiBiaseA-M. (Eds) Engaging Young Children in Mathematics: Findings of the 2000 National Conference on Standards for Preschool and Kindergarten Mathematics Education. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
87.
SaramaJ.ClementsD.H. & VukelicE.B. (1996) The Role of a Computer Manipulative in Fostering Specific Psychological/Mathematical Processes, in JakubowskiE.WatkinsD. & BiskeH. (Eds) Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Meeting of the North America Chapter of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, vol. 2, pp. 567–572. Columbus: ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education.
88.
ShadeD.D. (1994) Computers and Young Children: Software types, social contexts, gender, age, and emotional responses, Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 5, pp. 177–209.
89.
ShadeD.D.NidaR.E.LipinskiJ.M. & WatsonJ.A. (1986) Microcomputers and Preschoolers: Working together in a classroom setting, Computers in the Schools, 3, pp. 53–61.
90.
SheingoldK. (1986) The Microcomputer as a Symbolic Medium, in CampbellP.F. & FeinG.G. (Eds) Young Children and Microcomputers, pp. 25–34. Reston: Reston Publishing.
91.
VaidyaS. & McKeebyJ. (1984) Computer Turtle Graphics: Do they affect children's thought processes?Educational Technology, 24, pp. 46–47.
92.
WatsonJ.A. & BrinkleyV.M. (1990/91) Space and Premathematic Strategies Young Children Adopt in Initial Logo Problem Solving, Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 2, pp. 17–29.
93.
WatsonJ.A.LangeG. & BrinkleyV.M. (1992) Logo Mastery and Spatial Problem-solving by Young Children: Effects of Logo language training, route-strategy training, and learning styles on immediate learning and transfer, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 8, pp. 521–540.
94.
WrightJ.L. (1994) Listen to the Children: Observing young children's discoveries with the microcomputer, in WrightJ.L. & ShadeD.D. (Eds) Young Children: Active learners in a technological age, pp. 3–17. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
95.
XinJ.F. (1999) Computer-assisted Cooperative Learning in Integrated Classrooms for Students with and without Disabilities, Information Technology in Childhood Education Annual, 1999, pp. 61–78.
96.
YellandN. (1994) A Case Study of Six Children Learning with Logo, Gender and Education, 6, pp. 19–33.
97.
YellandN.J. (1998) Making Sense of Gender Issues in Mathematics and Technology, in YellandN.J. (Ed.) Gender in Early Childhood, pp. 249–273. London: Routledge.
98.
YostN.J.M. (1998) Computers, Kids, and Crayons: A comparative study of one kindergarten's emergent literacy behaviors, Dissertation Abstracts International, 59–08, 2847.