One of the psychological states that can be monitored and influenced during learning in order to improve its various aspects is the state of anxiety, and one possible index of this state is frontal EEG beta. However, frontal EEG beta has also been associated with mental activities. This may imply that frontal EEG beta would not be a reliable index of anxiety in situations, such as learning, where significant mental activities can be involved. The present study investigated the relationship between frontal EEG beta and anxiety during computer-based learning. The frontal EEG beta and anxiety levels of four groups of 15 students were measured during learning conditions that comprised any of combinations of anxiety reduction and mental activities, anxiety reduction alone, or no treatment. The groups that combined anxiety reduction with mental activities showed significant increase in frontal EEG beta even though they recorded significant reduction in subjective anxiety. This may suggest that frontal EEG beta is not a reliable index of anxiety during computer-based learning.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
BeanT. W.SearlesD.SingerH.CowenS. (1990). Learning concepts from biology text through pictorial analogies and an analogical study guide. Journal of Educational Research, 83, 233–237.
2.
BensonH. (1975). The relaxation response. New York: Collins.
3.
CooperR.OsseltonJ. W.ShawJ. C. (1974). EEG technology. London: Butterworths.
4.
CooperJ.StoneJ. (1996). Gender, computer-assisted learning, and anxiety: With a little help from a friend. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 15(1), 67–91.
5.
CrewsD. J.LandersD. M. (1992). Electroencephalographic measures of attentional patterns prior to the golf putt. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25(1), 116–126.
6.
DavidsonR. J. (1992). Anterior cerebral asymmetry and the nature of emotion. Brain and Cognition, 20, 125–151.
7.
FieldT.IronsonG.ScafidiF.NawrockiT.GoncalvesA.BurmanI.PickenJ.FoxN.SchanbergS.KuhnC. (1996). Massage therapy reduces anxiety and enhances EEG pattern of alertness and math computations. International Journal of Neuroscience, 86, 197–205.
8.
FisherB. L.AllenR.KoseG. (1996). The relationship between anxiety and problem-solving in children with and without learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29(4), 439–446.
9.
FraserB. J.FisherD. L. (1982). Effects of anxiety on science-related attitudes. European Journal of Science Education, 4(4), 441–450.
10.
FrostB. P. (1968). Anxiety and educational achievement. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 38, 293–301.
11.
HarmonyT.FernandezT.SilvaJ.BernalJ.Diaz-ComasL.ReyesA.MarosiE.RodriguezM.RodriguezM. (1996). EEG delta activity: An indicator of attention to internal processing during performance of mental tasks. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 24, 161–171.
12.
HembreeR. (1988). Correlates, causes, effects, and treatment of test anxiety. Review of Educational Research, 58(1), 47–77.
13.
InouyeT.ShinosakiK.IyamaA.MatsumotoY. (1993). Localisation of activated areas and directional EEG pattern during mental arithmetic. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 86, 224–230.
14.
JacobsG. D.BensonH.FriedmanR. (1996). Topographic EEG mapping of the relaxation response. Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 21(2), 121–129.
15.
JegedeO. J.KirkwoodJ. (1994). Students' anxiety in learning through distance education. Distance Education, 15(2), 279–290.
16.
KeirnZ. A.AunonJ. I. (1990). Man-machine communication through brainwaves processing. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology, 9, 55–57.
17.
KiroyV. N.WarsawskayaL. V.VoynovV. B. (1996). EEG after prolonged mental activity. International Journal of Neuroscience, 85, 31–43.
18.
LaiS. L. (1998). The effects of visual display on analogies using computer-assisted learning. International Journal of Instructional Media, 25(2), 151.
19.
LeherisseyB. L.O'NeilH. F.Jr.HansenD. N. (1971). Effects of memory support upon anxiety and performance in computer-assisted learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 62, 413–420.
20.
MacaulayM. (2002). Embedding computer-based learning with learning aids: A preliminary study. International Journal of Instructional Media, 29(3), 305–315.
21.
MarkandO. N. (1990). Alpha rhythms. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 7(2), 163–189.
22.
Mundy-CastleA. C. (1951). Theta and beta in the electroencephalogram of normal adults. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 3, 477–486.
23.
OkenB. S.SalinskyM. (1992). Alertness and attention: Basic science and electrophysiologic correlates. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 9(4), 480–494.
24.
O'NeilH. F.Jr.JuddW. A.HedlJ. J.Jr. (1977). State anxiety and performance in computer-based learning environments. In SieberJ. E.O'NielH. F.Jr.TobiasS. (Eds.), Anxiety, learning, and instruction. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
25.
PapayJ. P.CostelloJ. R.HedlJ. J.Jr.SpielbergerC. D. (1975). Effects of trait and state anxiety on the performance of elementary school children in traditional and individualized multiage classrooms. Journal of Educational Psychology, 67(6), 840–846.
26.
PetscheH.PockbergerH.RappelsbergerP. (1986). EEG topography and mental performance. In DuffyF. H. (Ed.), Topography mapping of the brain. Stoneham: Butterworth.
27.
PetruzzelloS. J.LandersD. M. (1994). State anxiety reduction and exercise: Does hemispheric activation reflect such changes?Medical Science Sports Exercise, 26(8), 1028–1035.
28.
PicardR. (1997). Affective computing. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
29.
RayW. J.ColeH. W. (1985). EEG alpha activity reflects attentional demands, and beta activity reflects emotional and cognitive processes. Science, 228, 750–752.
30.
RigneyJ. W.LutzK. A. (1976). Effect of graphic analogies of concepts in chemistry on learning and attitude. Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 305–311.
31.
RoyerJ. M.CableG. W. (1976). Illustrations, analogies and facilitative transfer in prose learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 205–209.
32.
SarasonI. G. (1957). Test anxiety, general anxiety and intellectual performance. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 21, 485–490.
33.
SieberJ. E. (1977). Development of the concept of anxiety. In SieberJ. E.O'NeilH. F.Jr.TobiasS. (Eds.), Anxiety, Learning, and Instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
34.
SpielbergerC. D. (1977). Computer-based research on anxiety and learning: An overview and critique. In SieberJ. E.O'NeilH. F.Jr.TobiasS. (Eds.), Anxiety, learning, and instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
35.
SpielbergerC. D.GorsuchR. L.LusheneR. E. (1970). The state-trait anxiety inventory (STAI): Test manual for Form X. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
ThomeerE. C.StamC. J.VanWoerkomT. C. A. M. (1994). EEG changes during mental activation. Clinical Electroencephalography, 25(3), 94–98.
38.
TobiasS. (1979). A model for research on the effect of anxiety on instruction. In SieberJ. E.O'NeilH. F.Jr.TobiasS. (Eds.), Anxiety learning, and instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
39.
TuckerD. M.DerryberryD. (1992). Motivated attention: Anxiety and the frontal executive functions. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Behavioral Neurology, 5(4), 233–252.
40.
WeixingP.LufenZ.YongX. (1994). The difference in EEG theta waves between concentrative and non-concentrative qigong states—A power spectrum and topographic mapping study. Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 14(3), 212–218.
41.
WineJ. (1971). Test anxiety and direction of attention. Psychological Bulletin, 76, 92–104.
