With the rise of Web pages providing interactive support for problem-solving or providing large amounts of information on which a person is expected to act, designers and writers need to consider how a person interacts with increasingly complex information-rich environments and how they intend to use the information. This article examines some of the theory underlying why people make errors early in the problem-solving process when they form an intention. Since these errors are cognitively-based and occur before any physical action, it is harder to analyze their cause or incorporate changes to reduce them in a design. It examines factors which contribute to user errors and which designers and writers must consider to produce documents which reduce user errors in forming intentions.
NormanD., Stages and Levels in Human-Machine Interaction, International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 21, pp. 365–375, 1984.
3.
PaternòF. and SantoroC., Preventing User Errors by Systematic Analysis of Deviations from the System Task Model, International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 56, pp. 225–245, 2002.
4.
MaxionR. and ReederR., Improving User-Interface Dependability through Mitigation of Human Error, International Journal of Human—Computer Studies, 63, pp. 25–50, 2005.
5.
AlbersM., Communication of Complex Information: User Goals and Information Needs for Dynamic Web Information, Erlbaum, Mahwah, New Jersey, 2004.
6.
MirelB., Applied Constructivism for User Documentation, Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 12: 1, pp. 7–49, 1998.
7.
MumbyD., Communication and Power in Organizations: Discourse, Ideology, and Domination, Ablex, Norwood, New Jersey, 1988.
8.
SchriverK., Dynamics in Document Design, Wiley, New York, 1996.
9.
AlbersM., Multidimensional Audience Analysis for Dynamic Information, Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, 33: 3, pp. 263–279, 2003.
10.
HackosJ. and RedishJ., User and Task Analysis for Interface Design, Wiley, New York, 1998.
11.
NormanD., Cognitive Engineering, in User Centered System Design: New Perspectives on Human-Computer Interaction, NormanD. and DraperS. (eds.), Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey, pp. 33–62, 1986.
12.
BasdenA. and HibberdP., User Interface Issues Raised by Knowledge Refinement, International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 45, pp. 135–155, 1996.
13.
JirotkaM. and GoguenJ., Introduction, in Requirements Engineering: Social and Technical Issues, JirotkaM. and GoguenJ. (eds.), Academic Press, San Diego, California, pp. 1–16, 1994.
14.
AllenP., User Attitudes Toward Corporate Style Guides: A Survey, Technical Communication, 43: 3, pp. 237–243, 1996.
15.
SimonH., Models of Thought, Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut, 1979.
16.
LandauerT., The Trouble with Computers: Usefulness, Usability, and Productivity, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1995.
17.
HollnagelE., Time to Think and Time to Do? I Can Fail and So Can You!Human Factors and Aerospace Safety, 4: 3, pp. 169–180, 2004.
18.
KleinG., Analysis of Situation Awareness from Critical Incident Reports, Situation Awareness Analysis and Measurement, EndsleyM. and GarlandD. (eds.), Erlbaum, Mahwah, New Jersey, pp. 51–72, 2000.
19.
Johnson-LairdP., Mental Models, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983.
20.
RedishJ., Understanding Readers, in Techniques For Technical Communicators, BarnumC. and CarlinerS. (eds.), Macmillan, New York, pp. 15–41, 1994.
21.
Van DijkT. and KintchW., Strategies of Discourse Comprehension, Academic Press, New York, 1983.
22.
FawcettH.FerdinandS., and RockleyA., Organizing Information, Proceedings of 38th STC Conference. New York, NY, April 1991, STC, Arlington, Virginia, 1991.
23.
SmithE. and GoodmanL., Understanding Written Instructions: The Role of an Explanatory Schema, Cognition and Instruction, 1: 4, pp. 359–396, 1984.
24.
GribbonsW., Visual Literacy in Corporate Communication: Some Implications for Information Design, IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 34: 1, pp. 42–50, 1991.
25.
BesnardD. and CacittiL., Interface Changes Causing Accidents. An Empirical Study of Negative Transfer, International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 62, pp. 103–125, 2005.
26.
DuinA., Reading to Learn and Do, Proceedings of 38th STC Conference. New York, NY, April 1991, STC, Arlington, Virginia, 1991.
27.
RasmussenJ., Information Processing and Human-Machine Interaction: An Approach to Cognitive Engineering, North-Holland, New York, 1986.
28.
TerveenL.SelfridgeP., and LongD., Living Design Memory: Framework, Implementation, Lessons Learned, Human-Computer Interaction, 10: 1, pp. 1–37, 1995.
29.
VicenteK., Cognitive Work Analysis, Erlbaum, Mahwah, New Jersey, 1999.
30.
SpyridakisJ. and WengerM., Writing for Human Performance: Relating Reading Research to Document Design, Technical Communication, 39: 2, pp. 202–215, 1992.
31.
SchanteauJ., Competence in Experts: The Role of Tasks Characteristics, Organisational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 53, pp. 252–266, 1992.
32.
ParkJ.YoonW., and RyuH., Users' Recognition of Semantic Affinity among Tasks and the Effects of Consistency, International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 12: 1, pp. 89–105, 2000.
33.
BrodbeckF.ZapfD.PruèmperJ., and FreseM., Error Handling in Office Work with Computers: A Field Study, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 66, pp. 303–317, 1993.
34.
GarrettS. and CaldwellB., Describing Functional Requirements for Knowledge Sharing Communities, Behaviour & Information Technology, 21: 5, pp. 359–364, 2002.
35.
WrightP., The Harassed Decision Maker: Time Pressure, Distractions, and the Use of Evidence, Journal of Applied. Psychology, 59: 5, pp. 555–561, 1974.
36.
WebsterD. and KruglanskiA., Individual Differences in Need for Cognitive Closure, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67: 6, pp. 1049–1672, 1994.
WickensC. and HollandsJ., Engineering Psychology and Human Performance, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 2000.
39.
JohnsonE.PayneJ., and BettmanJ., Information Displays and Preference Reversals, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 42, pp. 1–21, 1988.
40.
KleinG., Sources of Power: How People Make Decisions, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1999.
41.
HallgreenC., Using a Problem Focus to Quickly Aid Users in Trouble, Proceedings of the 1997 STC Annual Conference, STC, Washington, D.C., 1997.
42.
HalfordG.BakerR.McCreddenJ., and BainJ., How Many Variables Can Humans Process?, Psychological Science, 16: 1, pp. 70–76, 2005.
43.
MillerG., The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information, The Psychological Review, 63, pp. 81–97, 1956.
44.
BasdenA.BrownA., and TetlowS., Design of a User Interface for a Knowledge Refinement Tool, International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 45, pp. 157–183, 1996.
45.
AlbersM., Information Salience and Interpreting Information, Proceedings of the 14th Annual International Conference on Computer Documentation. October 22–24, El Paso, Texas, 2007.
46.
WallstenT. and BartonC., Processing Probabilistic Multidimensional Information for Decisions, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 8, pp. 361–384, 1982.
47.
GanzachY. and SchulY., The Influence of Quantity of Information and Goal Framing on Decisions, Acta Psychologia, 89, pp. 23–36, 1995.
48.
WickensC. and CarswellC., The Proximity Compatibility Principle: Its Psychological Function and Relevance to Display Design, Human Factors, 37, pp. 473–494, 1995.
49.
RedishJ., Expanding Usability Testing to Evaluate Complex Systems, Journal of Usability Studies, 2: 3, pp. 102–111, 2007.
50.
ClarkD., Content Management and the Production of Genres, Proceedings of the 14th Annual International Conference on Computer Documentation. October 22–24, El Paso, Texas, pp. 9–13, 2007.
51.
AlbersM., Guest Editor, Technical Communication special section on future of Technical Communication, 52: 3, 2005.
52.
AlbersM., Communication of Complex Information: User Goals and Information Needs for Dynamic Web Information, Erlbaum, Mahwah, New Jersey, 2004.
53.
AlbersM., Multidimensional Audience Analysis for Dynamic Information, Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, 33: 3, pp. 263–279, 2003.
54.
AlbersM., Single Sourcing and the Technical Communication Career Path, Technical Communication, 50: 3, pp. 335–343, 2003.
55.
KimL. and AlbersM. J., Presenting Information on the Small-Screen Interface: Effects of Table Formatting, IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 46: 2, pp. 94–103, 2003.
