Dioxin Prevention: Focusing on Chlorine Chemistry

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1994). Health Assessment Document for 2,3,7,8-Tetrachloro-dibenzo-p-dioxin and related compounds, Volumes I-III (Review draft). Washington: U.S.EPA Office of Research and Development, EPA/600/BP-92-001. And U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1994). Estimating Exposures to Dioxin-Like Compounds, Volume I-III (Review draft). Washington: U.S. EPA Office of Research and Development, EPA/600/6-88-005.

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U.S. EPA. Estimating Exposures to Dioxin-Like Compounds, op. cit., pp. 3–92 — 3–94.

See, for example, Kylin H. Grimvall A. , and Ostman C. . “Environmental monitoring of polychlorinated biphenyls using pine needles as passive samplers.” Environmental Science and Technology 28 (1994): 1320–1324; Frank H. “Airborne chlorocarbons, photoxidants and forest decline.” MBIO 20(1992): 13–18; Schroder P. “On the uptake and possible detoxification of short-chain aliphatic halocarbons in conifers.” Organohalogens 14(1993): 277–280; Juuti S. “Trichloroacetic acid in conifer needles in polluted and clean environments.” Organohalogens 14(1993): 281–284.

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U.S. EPA. Estimating Exposures to Dioxin-Like Compounds, op. cit., p. 3–124.

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Quebec Environment Ministry. Resultats d'analyse des sols avoisinants l'usine Plastibec Ltee. 29 June 1993. See also Francoeur Le Devoir L. “Contamination a la dioxine a Sainte-Therese.” Le Devon. 2 July 1993. See also, Picard A. “Quebec fire site seriously contaminated.” Toronto Globe and Mail, 3 July 1993, A4.

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U.S. EPA. Estimating Exposures to Dioxin-Like Compounds. op. cit., pp. 3–44 to 3–59.

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Heindl A. and Hutzinger O. (1987) op. cit. See also Hutzinger O. , and Fiedler H. . Formation of dioxins and related compounds in industrial process. Pilot Study on International Information Exchange on Dioxins and Related Compounds #173. North Atlantic Treaty Organization Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society, August 1988.

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Assuming 13 million tons of chlorine produced per year, of which an estimated 70 percent is used in the production of chlorinated organics. See SRI International. The Global Chlor-Alkali Industry: Strategic Implications and Impacts. Zurich: SRI, 1993.

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U.S. EPA. Estimating Exposures to Dioxin-Like Compounds, op. cit., p. 3–3.

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Miljoministeriet Miljostyrelsen, 1993. op. cit.

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U.S. EPA. Proposed New Effluent Limitations Guidelines, Pre-treatment Standards, and New Source Performance Standards: Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard Category; National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for Source Category: Pulp and Paper Production. 58 Federal Register 66078, December 17, 1993. See also Hilleman B. “Chlorine-based bleaching: EPA rule to curb paper industry use.” Chemical and Engineering News, November 8, 1993, pp. 5–6.

Based on the following calculations: Persistent, bioaccumulative organochlorines (measured as EOX) are present at concentrations of 96 ug/litre in effluent from kraft mills using 100 percent chlorine-dioxide bleach; each kilogram of organically-bound halide measured as EOX corresponds to approximately 2 kilograms of organohalogen; production of one ton of kraft pulp results in the discharge of 18,600 gallons of water; and 27 million tons of bleached kraft are produced in the U.S. each year. Effluent concentrations from Solomon K. A Review and Assessment of the Ecological Risks Associated with the Use of Chlorine Dioxide for the Bleaching of Pulp. Washington: Alliance for Environmental Technology, October 1993.

Clark D. “Non-chlorine pulp and paper markets from a European perspective.” Amelia Island, FL: International Non-chlorine Bleaching Conference, March 14–18, 1993.

Wilken M. “Dioxin emissions from furnaces, particularly from wood furnaces.” Berlin: Engineering Group for Technological Environmental Protection for the German Environmental Protection Agency, February 1994. See also German Environmental Protection Agency (UBA) “Dioxin emissions from wood furnaces.” (Press release). Berlin, February 1994.

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Kemezis P. “PVC: Signs of Life in the U.S.” Chemical Week, October 28, 1992. See also SRI International. The Global Chlor-Alkali Industry: Strategic Implications and Impacts. Zurich: SRI, 1993.

International Joint Commission on the Great Lakes. Sixth Biennial Report on the Great Lakes Water Quality. Windsor, ON, 1994.

Lorber M. Schaum J. and Cleverly D. “Screening estimate of indirect impacts from the Columbus incinerator.” U.S. EPA Office of Research And Development, Exposure Assessment Group. August 19, 1994. See also, Thornton J. “New incinerator dioxin standards fail to protect health, EPA risk assessment shows.” Washington: Greenpeace, 1994.

Miller R. , and Lewis S. . “Orderly transition for chemical sunsetting.” New Solutions Vol. 5, No. 1 (1994): 55–62.

U.S. EPA, Estimating Exposures to Dioxin-Like Compounds, op. cit., pp. 3–155 to 3–164.