A time allocation study was designed to determine how two types of teachers spend their time in a primary school computer lab in Costa Rica. As a group, teachers of both types were found to allocate more of their time to boys than to girls. Moreover, boys were found to monopolize the primary teaching resource (the formally trained lab teacher), leaving girls to seek assistance from the secondary resource (their regular classroom teacher). Results of the study have important implications both for the anthropology of education and for Costa Rican society at large.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
BeynonJ., “Just a Few Machines Bleeping Away in the Corner”: A Review of Naturalistic Studies of Computers in Education in the UK, in Case Studies in Computer Aided Learning, BlomeyerR. L.Jr.MartinC. D. (eds.), The Falmer Press, London, pp. 277–293, 1991.
2.
ClarkeV. A., Sex Differences in Computing Participation: Concerns, Extent, Reasons and Strategies, Australian Journal of Education, 34:1, pp. 52–66, 1990.
3.
SuttonR. E., Equity and Computers in the Schools: A Decade of Research, Review of Educational Research, 61:4, pp. 475–503, 1991.
4.
HuberB. R.SchofieldJ. W., “I Like Computers, But Many Girls Don't”: Gender and the Sociocultural Context of Computing, in Education/Technology/Power, BromleyH.AppleM. (eds.), SUNY Press, Albany, forthcoming.
5.
Asociación Demografica Costarricense, Census, San Jose, Costa Rica, 1984.
6.
BiesanzR.BiesanzK. Z.BiesanzM. H., The Costa Ricans, Waveland Press, Prospect Heights, Illinois, pp. 90, 114–116, 220, 1988.
7.
Institute of International Education, Regional Education Profile: Central America, United States Information Agency, New York, p. 34, 1986.
8.
PachecoF. A., Panorama de la educación costarricense en el primer año de labores, Ministry of Education, San Jose, Costa Rica, 1986.
9.
The Tico Times, $77.9 Billion Budget Rushed Through Congress, p. 21, December 8, 1989.
10.
WahabZ., Education in Costa Rica: An Overview, presentation at the annual conference of the Western Region of the Comparative and International Education Society and the Far Western Philosophy of Education Society, Los Angeles, California, p. 2, 1983.
11.
DyerJ., Computer Dreams Come True, The Tico Times, San Jose, Costa Rica, p. 12, February 19, 1988.
12.
EdwardsL. D., Mathematical Explorations in Logo: Report of a Pilot Study from Costa Rica, Educational Technology, 34:5, p. 58, 1994.
13.
FonsecaC., Computadoras en la escuela pública costarricense: La puesta en marcha de una decisión, Fundación Omar Dengo, San José, Costa Rica, pp. 42, 55–60, 69–84, 1991.
14.
HarperD., Reports from Costa Rica, Venezuela, Brazil, and Israel, Logo Exchange, 10:2, p. 43, 1991.
15.
La Nación, Programa de cómputo, p. 8A, July 6, 1992.
16.
TrejosA. (ed.), Geografía ilustrada: Costa Rica, Trejos Editores, San José, Costa Rica, p. 243, 1991.
17.
AguilarF.AlvaradoA.CalderónA. C.FallasI.HernándezS.PereiraR.RamírezM. G.VargasA., Ideas para la integración curricular, (Internal document of the FOD), San Jose, Costa Rica, 1989.
18.
Badilla-SaxeE., Starting with Scribbles, Logo Exchange, 10:2, pp. 37–42, 1991.
19.
ChacónR., Sugerencias de contenidos de los planes de estudios para la integración curricular, (Internal document of the FOD), San Jose, Costa Rica, 1989.
20.
BarrantesZ. Méndez, Socialización y estereotipos sexuales en Costa Rica, Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 39, pp. 36–38, 1988.
21.
CarmenMa.RomeroR.OsorioP. RodolfoPizaL. EugeniaCrespoV. GuiselleLeónCarmen V.SaraMa.MonteroR., La mujer en Costa Rica y su participación del país, II parte, (Serie Investigaciones, Number 7), Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica, pp. 44, 170, 191–194, 196–198, 1986.
22.
AbramovayM.QuirósI. M. RamírezFigueredoM. Damasco, Detrás de Bastidores: Un Estudio de los mensajes producidos por organizaciones gubernamentales y no-gubernamentales trabajando con la mujer, Centro Interamericano de Documentación e Información Agrícola, San José, Costa Rica, pp. 49, 60, 82–83, 229–244, 1991.
23.
SuárezM. González, Modelos femeninos y masculinos en textos escolares, Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 39, pp. 19–22, 1988.
24.
QuirósT.LarrainB., La imagen de mujer que proyectan los medios de comunicación en Costa Rica, Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 14, pp. 7–8, 1977.
25.
GomezA. Montoya, El eterno feminino, Mundo de la Computación, 4:22, p. 22, 1990.
26.
DemetruliasD. M.RosenthalN. R., Discrimination Against Females and Minorities in Microcomputer Advertising, Computers and the Social Sciences, 1, p. 93, 1985.
27.
LevinT.GordonC., Effect of Gender and Computer Experience on Attitudes toward Computers, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 5:1, p. 86, 1989.
28.
SandersJ. S.StoneA., The Neuter Computer: Computers for Girls and Boys, Neal-Schuman Publishers, New York, p. 7, 1986.
29.
WareM. C.StuckM. F., Sex-Role Messages vis-à-vis Microcomputer Use: A Look at the Pictures, Sex Roles, 13:3–4, pp. 211–213, 1985.
30.
HernándezO., Análisis del abstencionismo en las elecciones presidenciales de Costa Rica en el período 1953–1986, Anuario de Estudios Centroamericanos, 16:2–17:1, p. 125, 1990–91.
31.
BarrantesZ. Méndez, La participación político-económica de la mujer en Costa Rica, Mujer, 2, pp. 41–42, 1985.
32.
CasasolaR.MoreraN. E.ObandoP., Consideraciones en torno a la incorporación de la mujer al proceso productivo: Area metropolitana, Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 25, pp. 32–33, 1983.
33.
SuárezM. González, La mujer en Costa Rica, división del trabajo, salarios y distribución de puestos directivos, Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 14, pp. 32–41, 1977.
34.
GuzmánL. S., Las nuevas formas de penetración capitalista en la industria costarricense y su impacto en la mano de obra femenina, Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 25, pp. 14–16, 1983.
35.
GonzálezS. Chavarría, Mujeres y matemática, Revista de Educación de la Universidad de Costa Rica, 9, p. 92, 1985.
36.
MendiolaH. M., Expansión de la educación superior costarricense en los 1970s: Impacto en la estratificación social y en el mercado de trabajo, Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 42, p. 87, 1989.
37.
MendiolaH. M., Gender Inequalities and the Expansion of Higher Education in Costa Rica, in Women and Education in Latin America, StromquistN. P. (ed.), Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, pp. 130–132, 1992.
38.
GrayF., interview by the first author, Universidad Nacional Autonoma, Heredia, Costa Rica, July 29, 1992.
39.
La Nación, Institute Nacional de Aprendizaje comunica la lista de personas admitidas en el Centro Nacional de Informática, pp. 34A–35A, July 24, 1992.
40.
Oficina de Registro, Universidad de Costa Rica, Estadística de graduación: I y II ciclos de 1991, (Internal document), San José, Costa Rica, p. 24, 1991.
41.
DeRosierM. E.KupersmidtJ. B., Costa Rican Children's Perceptions of Their Social Networks, Developmental Psychology, 27:4, pp. 658–660, 1991.
42.
GrossD. R., Time Allocation: A Tool for the Study of Cultural Behavior, Annual Review of Anthropology, 13, pp. 519–558, 1984.
43.
FagotB. I., Influence of Teacher Behavior in the Preschool, Developmental Psychology, 9:2, pp. 200, 203, 1973.
44.
RosenshineB. V., How Time is Spent in Elementary Classrooms, Journal of Classroom Interaction, 17:1, p. 18, 1981.
45.
AdamsR.BiddleB., Realities of Teaching, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1970.
46.
GoodT. L.BrophyJ. E., Educational Psychology: A Realistic Approach, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1980.
47.
SaurR.PoppM.IsaacsM., Action Zone Theory and the Hearing-Impaired Student in the Mainstreamed Classroom, Journal of Classroom Interaction, 19:2, pp. 21–25, 1984.
48.
TobinK.GallagherJ. J., The Role of Target Students in the Science Classroom, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 24:1, p. 70, 1987.
49.
KoyeyaM., Location and Interaction in Row-and-Column Seating Arrangements, Environment and Behavior, 8, pp. 265–282, 1976.
50.
DelefesP.JacksonB., Teacher-Pupil Interaction as a Function of Location in the Classroom, Psychology in the Schools, 9:2, pp. 119–123, 1972.
51.
JonesM. G., Action Zone Theory, Target Students and Science Classroom Interactions, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27:7, p. 656, 1990.
52.
SadkerM.SadkerD.KleinS., The Issue of Gender in Elementary and Secondary Education, in Review of Research in Education, 17, GrantG. (ed.), American Educational Research Association, Washington, D.C., 1991.
53.
BradyK. L.EislerR. M., Gender Bias in the College Classroom: A Critical Review of the Literature and Implications for Future Research, Journal of Research and Development in Education, 29:1, pp. 9–18, 1995.
54.
EbbeckM., Equity for Boys and Girls: Some Important Issues, Early Child Development and Care, 18, p. 124, 1984.
55.
BerkL. E.LewisN. G., Sex Role and Social Behavior in Four School Environments, Elementary School Journal, 77, p. 214, 1977.
56.
BrophyJ. E.GoodT. L., Teachers' Communication of Differential Expectations for Children's Classroom Performance: Some Behavioral Data, Journal of Educational Psychology, 61:5, p. 369, 1970.
57.
BrophyJ. E.EvertsonC., with AndersonL.BaumM.CrawfordJ., Student Characteristics and Teaching, Longman, New York, pp. 92, 115, 1981.
58.
EcclesJ. S.BlumenfeldP., Classroom Experiences and Student Gender: Are there Differences and Do They Matter?, in Gender Influences in Classroom Interaction, WilkinsonL. C.MarrettC. B. (eds.), Academic Press, Orlando, pp. 89, 98, 1985.
59.
SadkerM.SadkerD., Sexism in the Schoolroom of the '80s, Psychology Today, 19, pp. 54–56, 1985.
60.
SadkerM.SadkerD., Sexism in the Classroom: From Grade School to Graduate School, Phi Delta Kappan, 67:7, pp. 512–513, 1986.
61.
SimpsonA. W.EricksonM. T., Teachers' Verbal and Nonverbal Communication Patterns as a Function of Teacher Race, Student Gender, and Student Race, American Educational Research Journal, 20:2, p. 194, 1983.
62.
GoodT. L.SikesJ. N.BrophyJ. E., Effects of Teacher Sex and Student Sex on Classroom Interaction, Journal of Educational Psychology, 65, pp. 79, 83, 1973.
63.
MorseL. W.HandleyH. M., Listening to Adolescents: Gender Differences in Science Classroom Interaction, in Gender Influences in Classroom Interaction, WilkinsonL. C.MarrettC. B. (eds.), Academic Press, Orlando, pp. 44, 48, 1985.
64.
ConstantinopleA.CorneliusR.GrayJ., The Chilly Climate: Fact or Artifact?, Journal of Higher Education, 59:5, pp. 527–550, 1988.
65.
HuntingtonR., Sexism in the Classroom, Equity & Excellence, 22, p. 100, 1986.
66.
KarpD. A.YoelsW. C., The College Classroom: Some Observations on the Meanings of Student Participation, Sociology and Social Research, 60:4, pp. 425–427, 1976.
67.
LongJ. E., The Effects of Teacher Sex Equity and Effectiveness Training on Classroom Interaction at the University Level, unpublished doctoral dissertation, American University, Washington, D.C., 1986.
68.
HillmanS. B.DavenportG. G., Teacher-Student Interactions in Desegregated Schools, Journal of Educational Psychology, 70:4, pp. 550–551, 1978.
69.
BeckerJ. R., Differential Treatment of Females and Males in Mathematics Classes, Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 12:1, pp. 44, 47–48, 1981.
70.
EtaughC.HarlowH., Behaviors of Male and Female Teachers as Related to Behaviors and Attitudes of Elementary School Children, Journal of Genetic Psychology, 127, p. 169, 1975.
71.
JacksonP. W.LahaderneH. M., Inequalities of Teacher-Pupil Contacts, Psychology in the Schools, 4, p. 208, 1967.
72.
JonesM. G.WheatleyJ., Gender Influences in Classroom Displays and Student-Teacher Behaviors, Science Education, 73:5, p. 539, 1989.
73.
KrupnickC. G., Women and Men in the Classroom: Inequality and Its Remedies, On Teaching and Learning, 12, pp. 19–20, 1985.
74.
LockheedM. E., Some Determinants and Consequences of Sex Segregation in the Classroom, in Gender Influences in Classroom Interaction, WilkinsonL. C.MarrettC. B. (eds.), Academic Press, Orlando, p. 178, 1985.
75.
MeyerW. J.ThompsonG. G., Sex Differences in the Distribution of Teacher Approval and Disapproval among Sixth-Grade Children, Journal of Educational Psychology, 47:7, p. 394, 1956.
76.
SerbinL. A.O'LearyK. D.KentR. N.TonickI. J., A Comparison of Teacher Response to the Preacademic and Problem Behavior of Boys and Girls, Child Development, 44, pp. 779, 803, 1973.
77.
TobinK.GarnettP., Gender Related Differences in Science Activities, Science Education, 71:1, pp. 96–97, 1987.
78.
WienekampH.JansenW.FickenfrerichsH.PeperR., Does Unconscious Behaviour of Teachers Cause Chemistry Lessons to be Unpopular with Girls?, International Journal of Science Education, 9:3, pp. 283, 285, 1987.
79.
BoersmaP. D.GayD.JonesR. A.MorrisonL.RemickH., Sex Differences in College Student-Teacher Interactions: Fact or Fantasy?, Sex Roles, 7:8, pp. 778–779, 783, 1981.
80.
OmvigC. P., Teacher/Student Classroom Interaction in Vocational Education: A Sex Bias/Sex Stereotyping Project, Kentucky State Department of Education, Frankfort, pp. 54–55, 1989.
81.
YepezM. E., An Observation of Gender-Specific Teacher Behavior in the ESL Classroom, Sex Roles, 30:1–2, p. 128, 1994.
82.
BakerD. R., Sex Differences in Classroom Interactions in Secondary Science, Journal of Classroom Interaction, 22:2, pp. 8–10, 1986.
83.
BiberH.MillerL. B.DyerJ. L., Feminization in Preschool, Developmental Psychology, 7, p. 86, 1972.
84.
FieldT. M., Preschool Play: Effects of Teacher/Child Ratios and Organization of Classroom Space, Child Study Journal, 10:3, p. 198, 1980.
85.
WhyteJ., Observing Sex Stereotypes and Interactions in the School Lab and Workshop, Educational Review, 36:1, pp. 77, 79–80, 1984.
86.
SiegelS., Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1956.
87.
SikesJ. N., Differential Behavior of Male and Female Teachers with Male and Female Students, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas at Austin, pp. 30–31, 1971.
88.
StallingsJ., Factors Influencing Women to Enroll in Advanced Mathematics Courses: Executive Summary, SRI International, Menlo Park, California, p. 133, 1979.
89.
SternglanzS. H.Lyberger-FicekS., Sex Differences in Student-Teacher Interactions in the College Classroom, Sex Roles, 3:4, p. 349, 1977.
90.
O'DonnellK., Computer Laboratory Assistant Interactions with Communication Students, paper presented at the annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association (79th), Miami Beach, Florida, ERIC: ED368010, November 18–21, 1993.
91.
GoodT. L.SlavingsR. L.HarelK. H.EmersonH., Student Passivity: A Study of Question Asking in K-12 Classrooms, Sociology of Education, 60, pp. 187–190, 194, 1987.
92.
JonesM. G.WheatleyJ., Gender Differences in Teacher-Student Interactions in Science Classrooms, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27:9, pp. 866–871, 1990.
93.
GoodT. L.CooperH. M.BlakeyS. L., Classroom Interaction as a Function of Teacher Expectations, Student Sex, and Time of Year, Journal of Educational Psychology, 72:3, p. 383, 1980.
94.
WilliamsS. W.OgletreeS. M.WoodburnW.RaffeldP., Gender Roles, Computer Attitudes, and Dyadic Computer Interaction Performance in College Students, Sex Roles, 29:7–8, pp. 520–522, 1993.
95.
FennemaE.PetersonP. L., Teacher-Student Interactions and Sex-Related Differences in Learning Mathematics, Teaching & Teacher Education, 2:1, p. 35, 1986.
96.
CherryL., The Preschool Teacher-Child Dyad: Sex Differences in Verbal Interaction, Child Development, 46, p. 534, 1975.
97.
DavisO. L.Jr.SlobodianJ. J., Teacher Behavior toward Boys and Girls during First Grade Reading Instruction, American Educational Research Journal, 4:3, pp. 265–266, 1967.
98.
HonigA. S.WittmerD. S., Teacher Questions to Male and Female Toddlers, Early Child Development and Care, 9, p. 31, 1982.
99.
LeinhardtG.SeewaldA. M.EngelM., Learning What's Taught: Sex Differences in Instruction, Journal of Educational Psychology, 71:4, p. 438, 1979.
100.
AppleM. W., Teachers and Texts: A Political Economy of Class and Gender Relations in Education, Routledge, New York, pp. 170–171, 1986.
101.
KrendlK. A.BroihierM. C.FleetwoodC., Children and Computers: Do Sex-Related Differences Persist?, Journal of Communication, 39:3, p. 85, 1989.
