We considered whether positive and stable self-stereotypes of stigmatized group members can influence functioning (in contrast, stereotype threat theory suggests these influential self-stereotypes are limited to ones that are negative and situational). Specifically, we examined older individuals' positive age stereotypes after a life-threatening event, an acute myocardial infarction (AMI). Sixty-two persons, aged 50 to 96, participated. As expected, positive age stereotypes were found, even immediately after an AMI, and they did not significantly change over the next seven months. Also as expected, these self-stereotypes predicted physical recovery, after adjusting for potentially relevant covariates. Recovery expectations acted as a mediator. These findings suggest the importance of understanding the role that positive stereotypes may play in the health of stigmatized group members.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AlexanderN. B.GuireK. E.ThelenD. G.Ashton-MillerJ. A.SchultzA. B.GrunawaltJ. C.GiordaniB. (2000). Self-reported walking ability predicts functional mobility performance in frail older adults. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 48, 1408–1413.
2.
AllportG. W. (1958). The nature of prejudice. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
3.
American Heart Association. (2003). Heart disease and stroke statistics-2003 Update. Dallas, TX: American Heart Association.
4.
American Heart Association. (2005). Heart disease and stroke statistics-2005 Update. Dallas, TX: American Heart Association.
5.
BarnettP. A.SpenceJ. D.ManuckS. B.JenningsJ. R. (1997). Psychological stress and the progression of carotid artery disease. Journal of Hypertension, 15, 49–55.
6.
BaronR. M.KennyD. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.
7.
BerkmanL. F.BlumenthalJ.BurgM.CarneyR. M.CatellierD.CowanM. J.CzajkowskiS. M.DeBuskR.HoskingJ.JaffeA.KaufmannP. G.MitchellP.NormanJ.PowellL. H.RaczynskiJ. M.SchneidermanN. (2003). Effects of treating depression and low perceived social support on clinical events after myocardial infarction: The Enhancing Recovery in Coronary Heart Disease Patients (ENRICHD) Randomized Trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 289, 3106–3116.
8.
BlascovichJ.SpencerS. J.QuinnD.SteeleC. (2001). African Americans and high blood pressure: The role of stereotype threat. Psychological Science, 12, 225–229.
9.
BorkanJ. M.QuirkM. (1992). Expectations and outcomes after hip fracture among the elderly. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 34, 339–350.
10.
BrownC. J.FriedkinR. J.InouyeS. K. (2004). Prevalence and outcomes of low mobility in hospitalized older patients. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 52, 1263–1270.
11.
BushD. E.ZiegelsteinR. C.TaybackM.RichterD.StevensS.ZahalskyH.FauerbachJ. A. (2001). Even minimal symptoms of depression increase mortality risk after acute myocardial infarction. American Journal of Cardiology, 88, 337–341.
12.
CarneyR. M.BlumenthalJ. A.CatellierD.FreedlandK. E.BerkmanL. F.WatkinsL. L.CzajkowskiS. M.HayanoJ.JaffeA. S. (2003). Depression as a risk factor for mortality after acute myocardial infarction. The American Journal of Cardiology, 92, 1277–1281.
13.
CapellanO.HollanderJ. E.PollackC.HoekstraJ. W.WilkeE.TiffanyB.SitesF. D.ShoferF. S.GiblerW. B. (2003). Prospective evaluation of emergency department patients with potential coronary syndromes using initial absolute CK-MB vs. CK-MB Relative Index. Journal of Emergency Medicine, 24, 361–367.
14.
CharlsonM. E.PompeiP.AlesK. L.MacKenzieC. R. (1987). A new method of classifying prognostic comorbidity in longitudinal studies: Development and validation. Journal of Chronic Disease, 40, 373–383.
15.
ClarkK. B. (1953). Race, prejudice and children. Child, 17, 113–115.
16.
DaviesP. G.SpencerS. J.SteeleC. M. (2005). Clearing the air: Identity safety moderates the effects of stereotype threat on women's leadership aspirations. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 88, 276–287.
17.
GillmanS. L. (1985). Differences and pathology: Stereotypes of sexuality, race and madness. Ithica, NY: Cornell University Press.
18.
GuralnikJ. M.SimonsickE. M.FerrucciL.GlynnR. J.BerkmanL. F.BlazerD. G.ScherrP. A.WallaceR. B. (1994). A short physical performance battery assessing lower extremity function: Association with self-reported disability and prediction of mortality and nursing home admission. Journal of Gerontology, 49, 85–94.
19.
HausdorffJ.LevyB.WeiJ. (1999). The influence of ageism on gait. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 47, 1346–1349.
20.
HawthorneM. H. (1991). Using the trajectory framework: Reconceptualizing cardiac illness. Scholarly Inquiry for Nursing Practice: An International Journal, 5, 185–195.
21.
HummertM. L. (1999). A social cognitive perspective on age stereotypes. In HessT. M.Blanchard-FieldsF. (Eds.), Social cognition and aging. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
22.
HummertM. L.GarstkaT. A.ShanerJ. L.StrahmS. (1994). Stereotypes of the elderly held by young, middle-aged, and elderly adults. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Science, 49, 240–249.
23.
IckovicksJ. R.ViscoliC. M.HorwitzR. L. (1997). Functional recovery after myocardial infarction in men: The independent effect of social class. Annals of Internal Medicine, 127, 518–525.
24.
KempenG. I.SandermanR.MiedemaI.JongB. Meyboom-DeOrmelJ. (2000). Functional decline after congestive heart failure and acute myocardial infarction and the impact of psychological attributes. A prospective study. Quality of Life Research, 9, 439–450.
25.
KennyD. A.KashyD. A.BolgerN. (1998). Data analysis in social psychology. In GilbertD. T.FiskeS. T.LindzeyG. (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 233–265). New York: McGraw-Hill.
26.
LevyB. R. (1996). Improving memory in old age by implicit self-stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 1092–1107.
27.
LevyB. R.HausdorffJ.HenckeR.WeiJ. Y. (2000). Reducing cardiovascular stress with positive self-stereotypes of aging. Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 55, 205–213.
28.
LevyB. R.KaslS. V.GillT. M. (2004). Image of aging scale. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 99, 208–210.
29.
LevyB. R.SladeM.KaslS. V. (2002). Longitudinal benefit of positive self-perceptions of aging on functioning health. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Science, 57, 409–417.
30.
LevyB. R.SladeM. D.KunkelS.KaslS. V. (2002). Increased longevity from positive self-stereotypes of aging. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 261–270.
31.
MeadG. H. (1934). Mind, self & society from the standpoint of a social behaviorist. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
32.
MontgomeryG. H.BovbjergD. H. (2004). Presurgery distress and specific response expectancies predict postsurgery outcomes in surgery patients confronting breast cancer. Health Psychology, 23, 381–387.
33.
NevittM. C.CummingsS. R.KiddS.BlackD. (1989). Risk factors for recurrent nonsyncopal falls: A prospective study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 261, 2663–2668.
34.
PalmoreE. B. (1999). Ageism: Negative and positive. New York: Springer.
35.
RosowI.BreslauN. A. (1966). Guttman health scale for the aged. Journal of Gerontology, 21, 556–559.
36.
SeemanT. E.CharpentierP. A.BerkmanL. F.TinettiM. E.GuralnikJ. M.AlbertM.BlazerD.RoweJ. W. (1994). Predicting changes in physical performance in a high functioning elderly cohort: MacArthur Studies of Successful Aging. Journal of Gerontology: Medical Science, 49, 97–108.
37.
SherborneC. D.StewartA. L. (1991). The MOS social support survey. Social Science and Medicine, 32, 705–714.
38.
ShihM.PittinskyT. L.AmbadyN. (1999). Stereotype susceptibility: Identity salience and shifts in quantitative performance. Psychological Science, 10, 80–83.
39.
SingerJ. D.WillettJ. B. (2003). Applied longitudinal analysis: Modeling change and event occurrence. New York: Oxford University Press.
40.
SteeleC. M.AronsonJ. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 69, 797–811.
41.
Stewart-WilliamsS. (2004). The placebo puzzle: Putting together the pieces. Health Psychology, 23, 198–206.
42.
van JaarsveldC. H.SandermanR.MiedemaI.RanchorA. V.KempenG. I. (2001). Changes in health related quality of life in older patients with acute myocardial infarction or congestive heart failure: A prospective study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 49, 1052–1058.
43.
WheelerS. C.PettyR. E. (2001). The effects of stereotype activation on behavior: A review of possible mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin, 127797–826.
44.
WilcoxV. L.KaslS. V.BerkmanL. F. (1994). Social support and physical disability in older people after hospitalization: A prospective study. Health Psychology, 13, 170–179.
45.
WilcoxV. L.KaslS. V.IdlerE. L. (1996). Self-rated health and physical disability in elderly survivors of a major medical event. Journals of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 51, 96–104.
46.
WinogradC. H.LemskyC. M.NevittM. C.NordstromT. M.StewartA. L.MillerC. J.BlochD. A. (1994). Development of a physical performance and mobility examination. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 42, 743–749.
47.
WittB. J.JacobsenS. J.WestonS. A.KillianJ. M.MeverdenR. A.AllisonT. G.GuyS.ReederG. S.RogerV. L. (2004). Cardiac rehabilitation after myocardial infarction in the community. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 44, 988–996.
48.
YesavagesJ. S.BrinkT. L.RoseT. L.LeierV. O. (1983). Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: Preliminary report. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 17, 37–49.
