The purpose of this study was to investigate the psychometric properties of a child self efficacy scale for learning, peer interactions, and resisting pressure to use drugs, to use in an elementary school drug prevention education program based on social cognitive theory. A diverse cohort of 392 4th and 5th grade students completed the 20-item self efficacy scale and social support and social skills instruments. The results provide evidence for a valid and reliable 3-factor self efficacy scale. Subscale internal consistency reliability was good to excellent (Cronbach's alpha = 0.75, 0.83, 0.91). Construct validity was supported by correlations between each subscale and social skills, social support, and demographic data. The scale has potential as a tool to measure self efficacy in children related to learning, peer interactions, and resisting peer pressure to use drugs and to help shape drug education programs.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AbdiH. (2007). Bonferroni and Sidak corrections for multiple comparisons. In SalkindN. J. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Measurement and Statistics. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
2.
Annie E. Casey Foundation. (2007). Kids count 2007 data book online. Baltimore, MD: Annie E. Casey Foundation.
3.
BanduraA. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
4.
BanduraA. (1999). Moral disengagement in the perpetration of inhumanities. Personality and Social Psychology, 3(3), 193–209.
5.
BanduraA. (2004). Health promotion by social cognitive means. Health Education & Behavior, 31, 143–164.
6.
BanduraA. (2006). Guide for creating self efficacy scales. In PajaresF.UrdanT. (Eds.), Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
7.
BanduraA.BarbaranelliC.CapraraG. V.PastorelliC. (1996). Multifaceted impact of self-efficacy beliefs on academic functioning. Child Development, 67(3), 1206–1222.
8.
BanduraA.PastorelliC.BarbaranelliC.CapraraG. V. (1999). Self-efficacy pathways to childhood depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(2), 258–269.
9.
BeckerD.KuntzC.FertmanC. (2008). Preliminary evaluation of the Elementary Youth Support Program. Proceedings from 21st Annual National Prevention Network Prevention Research Conference: Prevention Research: Driving Successful Outcomes August 24–27, 1008. Indianapolis, IN: The University of Oklahoma.
10.
BenesK. M. (1995). Review of the Social Skills Rating System. In ConoleyJ. C.ImparaJ. C. (Eds.), Twelfth mental measurements yearbook (pp. 964–967). Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute of Mental Measurement.
11.
BlanchardL. T.GurkaM. J.BlackmanJ. A. (2006). Emotional, developmental, and behavioral health of American children and their families: A report from the 2003 National Survey of Children's Health. Pediatrics, 117(6), e1202–e1212.
12.
BurschB.TsaoJ. C.MeldrumM.ZelterL. K. (2006). Preliminary validation of a self-efficacy scale for child functioning despite chronic pan (child and parent versions). International Association for the Study of Pain, 125(1–2), 35–42.
13.
CainJ.DickinsonW.FernaldD.BublitzC.DickinsonL.WestD. (2006). Family physicians and youth tobacco-free education: Outcomes of the Colorado Tar Wars program. Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, 19(6), 579–589.
14.
CaplinD.AustinJ. K.DunnD. W.ShenJ.PerkinsS. (2002). Development of a self-efficacy scale for children and adolescents with epilepsy. Children's Health Care, 31, 295–309.
15.
Council on Drug & Alcohol Abuse (2006). Elementary Youth Support Program. Council on Drugs & Alcohol, Lancaster, PA.
16.
CowenE. L.WorkW. C.HightowerA. D.WymanP. A.ParkerG. R.LotyczewskiB. S. (1991). Toward the development of a measure of perceived self-efficacy in children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 20(2), 169–178.
17.
CullenK. W.BaranowskiT.SmithS. P. (2001). Using goal setting as a strategy for dietary behavior change. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 101, 562–566.
18.
DemarayM. K.MaleckiC. K. (2002). The relationship between perceived social support and maladjustment for students at risk. [Journal; Peer Reviewed Journal]. Psychology in the Schools, 39(3), 305–316.
19.
DemarayM. K.MaleckiC. K. (2003). Importance ratings of socially supportive behaviors by children and adolescents. School Psychology Review, 32(1), 108–131.
20.
DilorioC.ResnicowK.McCartyDF.DeA. K.DudleyW. N.WangD. T. (2006). Keepin' it R.E.A.L.! Results of a mother-adolescent HIV prevention program. Nursing Research, 55(10), 43–51.
21.
GreshamF. M.ElliottS. N. (1990). Social skills rating system manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
22.
HaB. T.JayasuriyaR.OwenN. (2005). Increasing male involvement in family planning decision making: Trial of a social-cognitive intervention in rural Vietnam. Health Education Research, 20(5), 548–556.
23.
HaggertyR.SherrodL.GarmezyN.RutterM. (1996). Stress, risk, and resilience in children and adolescents: Processes, mechanisms, and interventions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
24.
JenkinsJ. E.NolanH.RiederC. (1997). The generality of drug resistance self-efficacy across social situations and solitary contexts. Proceedings from Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association March 24–28, 1997. Chicago, IL.
25.
KaneI. (2007). Predicted and actual exercise discomfort, self efficacy and enjoyment in middle school children: A match-mismatch paradigm. Unpublished Dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh.
26.
KnightD. K.BroomeK. M.CrossD. R.SimpsonD. D. (1998). Antisocial tendency among drug-addicted adults: Potential long-term effects of parental absence, support, and conflict during childhood. American Journal of Drug & Alcohol Abuse, 24(3), 361–375.
27.
KumpferK. L.AlvaradoR. (2003). Family-strengthening approaches for the prevention of youth problem behaviors. American Psychologist, 58(6–7), 457–465.
28.
LeachR. A.YatesJ. M. (2008). Nutrition and youth soccer for childhood overweight: A pilot novel chiropractic health education intervention. Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics, 31(6), 434–441.
29.
LockeE. A.LathamG. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57(705–717).
30.
MaleckiC. K.DemarayM. K. (2002). Measuring perceived social support: Development of the child and adolescent social support scale (CASSS). Psychology in the Schools, 39(1), 1–18.
31.
MaleckiC. K.DemarayM. K. (2006). Social support as a buffer in the relationship between socioeconomic status and academic performance. School Psychology Quarterly, 21(4), 375–395.
32.
MashE. J.BarkleyR. A. (1996). Child psychopathology. New York: Guilford.
33.
McGaheeT. W.KempV.TingenM. (2000). A theoretical model for smoking prevention studies in preteen children. Pediatric Nursing, 26(3), 135–141.
34.
MolaisonE. F.ConnellC. L.StuffJ. E.YadrickM. K.BogleM. (2005). Influences on fruit and vegetable consumption by low-income black American adolescents. Journal of Nutrition Education Behavior, 37, 246–251.
35.
MurisP. (2002). Relationships between self efficacy and symptoms of anxiety disorders and depression in a normal adolescent sample. Personality & Individual Differences, 32, 337–348.
Office of Applied Studies. (2006). Results from the 2005 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National findings. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
38.
ParcelG. S.EdmundsonE.PerryC. L.FeldmanH. A.O'Hara-TompkinsN.NaderP. R. (1995). Measurement of self efficacy for diet-related behaviors among elementary school children. Journal of School Health, 65(1), 23–27.
39.
PerryC. M.De AyalaR. J.LebowR.HaydenE. (2007). A validation and reliability study of the physical activity and healthy food efficacy scale for children (PAHFE). Health Education & Behavior. Prepublished April 20, 2007, DOI: 10.1177/1090198106294892
40.
PierceJ.ChoiW.GilpinE.FarkasA.MerrittR. (1996). Validation of susceptibility as a predictor of which adolescents take up smoking in the United States. Health Psychology, 15(5), 355–361.
41.
PowersA. R.StruemplerB. J.GuarinoA.ParmerS. M. (2005). Effects of a nutrition education program on the dietary behavior and nutrition knowledge of second-grade and third-grade students. Journal of School Health, 75(4), 129–133.
42.
RinderknechtK.SmithC. (2004). Social cognitive theory in an after-school nutrition intervention for urban Native American youth. Journal of Nutrition Education, 36, 298–304.
43.
SchwartzL.HowlandM. A.Mercurio-ZappalaM.HoffmanR. S. (2003). The use of focus groups to plan poison prevention education programs for low-income populations. Health Promotion Practice, 4(3), 340–346.
44.
ShegogR.McAlisterA. L.HuS.FordK. C.MeshackA. F.PetersR. J. (2005). Use of interactive health communication to affect smoking interventions in middle school students: A pilot test of the ‘headbutt’ risk assessment program. American Journal of Health Promotion, 19(5), 334–338.
45.
SullivanT. N.KungE. M.FarrellA. D. (2004). Relation between witnessing violence and drug use initiation among rural adolescents: Parental monitoring and family support as protective factors. Journal of Clinical Child Adolescent Psychology, 33(3), 488–498.
46.
TongeB.KingN.KlimkeitE.MelvinG.GordonM. (2005). The self-efficacy questionnaire for depression in adolescents (SEQ-DA): Development and psychometric evaluation. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 14, 357–363.
47.
ZimmermanB.BanduraA.Martinez-PonsM. (1992). Self- motivation for academic attainment: The role of self-efficacy beliefs and personal goal setting. American Educational Research Journal, 29, 663–676.
48.
ZimmermanB. J.ClearyT. J. (2006). Adolescents' development of personal agency: The role of self efficacy beliefs and self-regulatory skill. In UrdanT.PajaresF. (Eds.), Self efficacy beliefs of adolescents (pp. 45–70). Greenwich: Information Age Publishing.
