Complex problem solving can be predicted to a fair degree by test intelligence. But if emotions are informative, emotional intelligence scores might increase this prediction even more. Therefore, we assessed problem solving behavior, performance, and mood in a quasi-experimental design with 63 students who varied in emotional clarity and solved problems low or high in complexity. Processing capacity served as a covariate. Results revealed that high clarity participants show more conducive problem-solving behavior with high complex problems and generally reach better performance than low clarity participants. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that emotional clarity predicts performance independent of and to the same degree as processing capacity. Finally, the ability- and mixed-model conceptions of emotional intelligence are discussed and the relationship between subjective and objective components of intelligence is questioned.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
MayerJ. D.CarusoD. R., and SaloveyP., Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence. Intelligence, 27, 267–298, 2000.
2.
MayerJ. D.SaloveyP., and CarusoD. R., Models of emotional intelligence, Models of emotional intelligence. In SternbergR. J. (Ed.), Handbook of intelligence (pp. 396–420). New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000a.
GolemanD., Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books, 1995.
5.
MayerJ. D.SaloveyP., and CarusoD. R., User's manual and item booklet for The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), Version 2.0. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems, Inc., 2002.
6.
MayerJ. D.SaloveyP.CarusoD. R., and SitareniosG., Measuring emotional intelligence with MSCEIT V2.0. Emotion, 3, 97–105, 2003.
7.
NeubauerA. C., and FreudenthalerH. H., Emotionale Intelligenz: Ein Überblick [Emotional intelligence: A review], Emotionale Intelligenz: Ein Überblick [Emotional intelligence: A review]. In SternE. and GuthkeJ. (Eds.), Perspektiven der Intelligenzforschung (pp. 205–232). Lengerich: Pabst Science Publishers, 2001.
8.
MayerJ. D. and GaschkeY. N., The experience and meta-experience of mood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 102–111, 1988.
9.
SaloveyP.MayerJ. D.GoldmanS. L.TurveyC., and PalfaiT. P., Emotional attention, clarity, and repair: Exploring emotional intelligence using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale, Emotional attention, clarity, and repair: Exploring emotional intelligence using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale. In PennebakerJ. W. (Ed.), Emotion, disclosure, and health (pp. 125–154). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1995.
10.
SaloveyP.StroudL. R.WooleryA., and EpelE. S., Perceived emotional intelligence, stress reactivity, and symptom reports: Further explorations using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale. Psychology and Health, 17, 611–627, 2002.
11.
OttoJ. H.Döring-SeipelE.GrebeM., und LantermannE.-D., Entwicklung eines Fragebogens zur Erfassung der wahrgenommenen emotionalen Intelligenz: Aufmerksamkeit auf, Klarheit und Beeinflussbarkeit von Emotionen [Development of a questoinnaire for measuring perceived emotional intelligence: Attention to, clarity, and repair of emotions]. Diagnostica, 47, 178–187, 2001.
12.
MatsumotoD.LeRouxJ.Wilson-CohnC.RaroqueJ.KookenK.EkmanP.YrizahyN.LoewingerS.UchidaH.YeeA.AmoL., and GohA., A. A new test to measure emotion recognition ability: Matsumoto and Ekman's Japanese and Caucasian Brief Affect Recognition Test (JACBART). Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 24, 179–209, 2000.
13.
SaloveyP.HseeC. H., and MayerJ. D., Emotional intelligence and the self-regulation of affect, Emotional intelligence and the self-regulation of affect. In WegnerD. M. and PennebakerJ. W. (Eds.), Handbook of mental control (pp. 258–277). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1993.
14.
SchwarzN., Feelings as information: Informational and motivational functions of affective states, Feelings as information: Informational and motivational functions of affective states. In HigginsE. T. and SorrentinoR. (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 527–561). New York: Plenum, 1990.
15.
SchwarzN. and CloreG. L., Feelings and phenomenal experiences, Feelings and phenomenal experiences. In HigginsE. T. and KruglanskiA. W. (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 433–455). New York: Guilford Press, 1996.
16.
SternbergR. J., Cognitive psychology. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1996.
17.
FrenschP. A. and FunkeJ., Definitions, traditions, and a general framework for understanding complex problem solving, Definitions, traditions, and a general framework for understanding complex problem solving. In FrenschP. A. and FunkeJ. (Eds.), Complex problem solving: The European perspective (pp. 3–25). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1995.
18.
DörnerD.KreuzigH. W.ReitherF., and StäudelT., (Hrsg.). Lohhausen. Vom Umgang mit Unbestimmtheit und Komplexität [Lohhausen. On handling indetermination and complexity]. Bern: Huber, 1983.
19.
HussyW., Komplexes Problemlösen und Verarbeitungskapazität [Complex problem solving and processing capacity]. Sprache und Kognition, 10, 208–220, 1991.
20.
HussyW., Denken und Problemlösen (2 Aufl.) [Thinking and problem solving (2nd ed.)]. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1998.
21.
KluweR. H.MisiakC., and HaiderH., The control of complex systems and performance in intelligence tests, The control of complex systems and performance in intelligence tests. In RoweH. (Ed.), Intelligence: Reconceptualization and measurement (pp. 227–244). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1991.
22.
SüßH. M., Intelligenz, Wissen und Problemlösen. Kognitive Voraussetzungen für erfolgreiches Handeln bei computersimulierten Problemen [Intelligence, knowledge, and problem solving. Cognitive premises for successful acting in computer-simulated problems]. Göttingen: Hogrefe, 1996.
23.
DörnerD. and WearingA. J., Complex problem solving: Toward a (computer simulated) theory, Complex problem solving: Toward a (computer simulated) theory. In FrenschP. A. and FunkeJ. (Eds.), Complex problem solving: The European perspective (pp. 65–99). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1995.
24.
Putz-OsterlohW. and LüerG., Über die Vorhersagbarkeit komplexer Problemlöseleistung durch Ergebnisse in einem Intelligenztest [The predictability of complex problem solving by performance on an intelligence test]. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle und Angewandte Psychologie, 28, 309–334, 1981.
25.
JägerA. O., Intelligenzstrukturforschung: Konkurrierende Modelle, neue Entwicklungen, Perspektiven [Research on the structure of intelligence: Competitive models, new developments, perspectives]. Psychologische Rundschau, 35, 21–35, 1984.
26.
DörnerD.StäudelT., and StrohschneiderS., Moroland-Programmdokumentation [Program documentation of Moroland]. Memorandum Nr. 23, Universität Bamberg, Lehrstuhl Psychologie II, 1986.
27.
RigasG., Decision making processes and leraning in a simulated ecological system, Decision making processes and leraning in a simulated ecological system. In GeorgantzisN. and BarredaI. (Eds.), Spatial economics and ecosystems: The interaction between economics and the natural environment (pp. 323–377). Southampton: WIT Press, 2000.
28.
SchimaP., Oberflächen- und Protokollfunktionen zum Bamberger Moroland—Programm in Delphi IV [Surface- and protocol features for the Bamberg Moroland Program in Delphi IV] (Computer Software). Universität Kassel, Fachbereich 7, Psychologie, 1999.
29.
HussyW., Zum Begriff der Problemschwierigkeit beim komplexen problemlösen [On the concept of problem difficulty in complex problem solving]. Trierer Psychologische Berichte 11, Heft 4, 1984.
30.
FunkeJ., Experimental research on complex problem solving, Experimental research on complex problem solving. In FrenschP. A. and FunkeJ. (Eds.), Complex problem solving: The European perspective (pp. 243–268). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1995.
31.
Schmidt-AtzertL., and HüppeM., Emotionsskalen EMO 16. Ein Fragebogen zur Selbstbeschreibung des aktuellen emotionalen Gefühlszustandes [Emotion Scales EMO 16. An inventory for the self-rating of actual emotional feelings]. Diagnostica, 42, 242–267, 1996.
32.
WeißR. H., Grundintelligenztest, Skala 2, CFT 20. Handanweisung für Durchführung, Auswertung und Interpretation (4. Aufl.) [Basic intelligence test, Scale 2 CFT 20. Manual for application, scoring, and interpretation (4th ed.)]. Göttingen: Hogrefe, 1998.
33.
RavenJ. C., Advanced Progressive Matrices, Set II. London: Lewis, 1962.
34.
JägerA. O.SüßH.-M., and BeauducelA., Berliner Intelligenzstruktur-Test: BIS-Test. Form 4 mit einem separat verwendbaren Kurztest der Allgemeinen Intelligenz und der Verarbeitungskapazität [Berlin intelligence-structure test: BIS-Test. Form 4 with a separate short-test for general intelligence and processing capacity]. Göttingen: Hogrefe, 1997.
StöberJ., Die Soziale-Erwünschtheits-Skala-17 (SES-17): Entwicklung und erste Befunde zu Reliabilität und Validität [The Social Desirability Scale-17 (SDS-17): Development and first results on reliability and validity]. Diagnostica, 45, 173–177, 1999.
37.
ZentnerM. and SchererK. R., Partikuläre und integrative Ansätze [Particular and integrative approaches], Partikuläre und integrative Ansätze [Particular and integrative approaches]. In OttoJ. H.EulerH. A., and MandlH. (Eds.), Emotionspsychologie. Ein Handbuch (pp. 151–164). Weinheim: Beltz, Psychologie Verlags Union, 2000.
38.
ReisenzeinR., Einschätzungstheoretische Ansätze [Appraisal theories], Einschätzungstheoretische Ansätze [Appraisal theories]. In OttoJ. H.EulerH. A., and MandlH. (Eds.), Emotionspsychologie. Ein Handbuch (pp. 117–138). Weinheim: Beltz, Psychologie Verlags Union, 2000.
39.
SchützA and LauxL., Selbst und Emotion [Self and emotion], Selbst und Emotion [Self and emotion]. In OttoJ. H.EulerH. A., and MandlH. (Eds.), Emotionspsychologie. Ein Handbuch (pp. 519–531). Weinheim: Beltz, Psychologie Verlags Union, 2000.
40.
LopesP. N.SaloveyP., and StrausR., Emotional intelligence, personality, and the perceived quality of social relationships. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 641–658, 2003.
41.
CiarrochiJ. V.ChanA. Y. C., and CaputiP., A Critical evaluation of the emotional intelligence construct. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 539–561, 2000.
42.
SchutteN. S.MalouffJ. M.HallL. E.HaggertyD. J.CooperJ. T.GoldenC. J., and DornheimL., Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 25, 167–177, 1998.
43.
MayerJ. D.SaloveyP., and CarusoD. R., Emotional intelligence as zeitgeist, as personality, and as mental ability, Emotional intelligence as zeitgeist, as personality, and as mental ability. In Bar-OnR. and ParkerJ. D. A. (Eds.), The handbook of emotional intelligence (pp. 92–117). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000b.
44.
KromreyJ. D. and Foster-JohnsonL., Mean centering in moderated multiple regression: Much ado about nothing. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 58, 42–67, 1998.
