Previous research indicates that the interrelated aspects of low self esteem and debilitating anxiety play a significant part in drug abuse. As a means of primary prevention this paper suggests the use of relaxation training to develop self esteem and reduce drug abuse. The aims of this paper are to provide an overview of relaxation training and electromyography and focus this approach on the needs of early adolescents as they may relate to the provision of a constructive alternative to drug abuse.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
MitchellJ., Early Adolescence, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Toronto, 1974.
2.
VolpeR., Assertiveness in Early Adolescence, The School Guidance Worker, 30: 6, pp. 11–15, 1975.
3.
CoopersmithD., The Psychology of Self Esteem, W. C. Freeman, San Francisco, 1967.
4.
SullivanH. S., The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry, W. W. Norton, New York, 1953.
5.
FelknerD., Building Positive Self Concepts, Burgess, New York, 1974.
6.
FrenkelS. I.RobinsonJ. A., and FimanB. G., Drug Use: Demography and Attitudes in Junior and Senior High School Population, Journal of Drug Education, 4: 2, pp. 179–186, 1974.
7.
HaysJ. R. and WinburnG. M., Drug Abuse Among Elementary School Students in a Suburban School Setting, Journal of Drug Education, 2: 4, pp. 355–360, 1972.
8.
LernerS. and LindnerR., Drugs in Elementary School, Journal of Drug Education, 4: 3, pp. 317–322, 1974.
9.
LernerS. E.LindnerR. L., and DroletJ. C., Drugs in High School, Journal of Drug Education, 4: 2, pp. 187–196, 1974.
10.
GalliN., Patterns of Drug Use, Journal of Drug Education, 4: 2, pp. 237–248, 1974.
11.
SmartR., A Report on the Attitude and the Behaviour of Toronto Students in Relation to Drugs, Addiction Research Foundation, 1969.
12.
SmartR., The Extensive Drug Use in Metropolitan Toronto Schools — A Study of Changes, Addiction Research Foundation, 1970.
13.
SmartR., Trends in Drug Use Among Metropolitan Toronto High School Students, Addiction Research Foundation, 1972.
14.
SmartR., Six Years of Cross Sectional Surveys of Student Drug Use in Toronto, Addiction Research Foundation, 1974.
15.
BlumR., Utopiates, Atherton, New York, 1966.
16.
BrooksH. B., Teaching Teachers to Teach about Drugs, National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, 55, pp. 127–134, 1971.
17.
FlynnW. R., The Pursuit of Purity: A Defensive Use of Drug Abuse in Adolescents, Adolescence, 5, pp. 141–150, 1970.
18.
JanowitzJ. D., There's No Hiding Place Down There, American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 37, p. 296, 1967.
19.
KellerM. H., Motivation for Marijuana Use: A Correlate of Adverse Reaction, American Journal of Psychiatry, 125, pp. 386–390, 1968.
20.
MitchellK. R.KirkbyR. J., and MitchellD. M., Notes on Sex Differences in Student Drug Usage, Psychological Reports, 27, p. 116, 1970.
21.
PearceJ., The Role of Education in Combating Drug Abuse, Journal of School Health, 41, pp. 83–88, 1971.
22.
DeLoneR. H., The Ups and Downs of Drug Abuse Education, Saturday Review of Education, pp. 27–31, November 1972.
23.
HalleckS., The Great Drug Education Hoax, Addictions, pp. 1–12, Winter 1971.
24.
KaneH., The Challenge of Preventative Drug Education, Symposium Presented at the Meeting of the International Congress of Drug Education, Montreaux, Switzerland, October 1973.
25.
GarfieldG., Drug Education and the Community Symposium Presented at the International Congress on Drug Education, Montreaux, Switzerland, October 1973.
26.
GoldM. and MannD., Delinquency as Defense, American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 42: 3, pp. 463–479, 1972.
27.
LevinsonB., Drug Education: A Pilot Study of a Three Dimensional Approach, Symposium Presented at the Meeting of the International Congress on Drug Education, Montreaux, Switzerland, October 1973.
28.
PoeN.BoyntonK., and AirmanP., A Comparison of Self Concept, Reflected Self, and Ideal Self of Drug Abusers and Non-Abusers, Unpublished Manuscript, Atlantic University, Florida, 1972.
29.
BrauchtG. N.BrakarshD.FollingstadD., and BerryK. L., Deviant Drug Use in Adolescence: A Review of Psychosocial Correlates, Psychological Bulletin, 79: 2, pp. 92–106, 1973.
30.
DohnerV. A., Alternatives to Drugs, Journal of Drug Education, 2: 1, pp. 3–22, 1972.
31.
CannonW. B., The Wisdom of the Body, Norton, New York, 1939.
32.
FreemanG. L., The Energetics of Human Behaviour, Cornell University, Ithaca, 1948.
33.
LangP., The Application of Psychophysiological Methods in the study of Psychotherapy and Behaviour Modification, In: BerginA. and GarfieldS. (eds.), Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behaviour Change: An Empirical Analysis, Wiley, New York, pp. 75–125, 1971.
34.
LaceyJ. I., Psychophysiological Approaches to the Evaluation of Psychotherapeutic Process and Outcome, In:RubinsteinE. A. and ParloffM. B. (eds.), Research in Psychotherapy, 1, APA, Washington, pp. 160–208, 1959.
35.
WhiteR., Competence and the Psychosexual Stages of Development, In: JonesM. (ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, 1960.
36.
WhiteR., Ego and Reality in Psychoanalytic Theory, Psychological Issues, Vol. III (Whole No. 3), Monograph 1, 1963.
37.
BerlyneD. E., Conflict, Arousal, and Curiosity, McGraw Hill, New York, 1960.
38.
WolpeJ., The Practice of Behaviour Therapy, Pergamon, New York, 1973.
WolpeJ., Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition, Stanford, University Press, California, 1958.
41.
SchultzJ. H. and LutheW., Autogenic Training: A Psychophysiologic Approach in Psychotherapy, Grune and Stratton, New York, 1959.
42.
StoyvaJ. and BudzynskiT., Cultivated Low Arousal — An Anti-Stress Response?, Unpublished Paper, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 1973.
43.
PaulG. L., Physiological Effects of Relaxation Training and Hypnotic Suggestions, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 74, pp. 425–437, 1969.
44.
GoldfriedM. R., Reduction of Generalized Anxiety Through a Variant of Systematic Desensitization in GoldfriedM. R. and MerbaumM. (eds.), Behaviour Change Through Self Control, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York, 1973.
45.
GrayB. B.EnglandG., and MahoneyJ. L., Treatment of Benign Vocal Nodules by Reciprocal Inhibition, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 3, pp. 187–193, 1965.
46.
SniderJ. G. and OettingE. R., Autogenic Training and the Treatment of Examination Anxiety in Students, Journal of Clinical Psychology, 22, pp. 111–114, 1966.
47.
WeilG., Treatment of Insomnia in an Eleven Year Old Child Through Self Relaxation, Behaviour Therapy, 4, pp. 282–294, 1973.
48.
SteffenJ. J., Electromyographically Induced Relaxation in the Treatment of Chronic Alcohol Abuse, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43: 2, p. 275, 1975.
49.
GoldfriedM. R. and TrierC., Effectiveness of Relaxation as an Active Coping Skill, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 83: 4, pp. 348–355, 1974.
50.
PaulG. L. and ShannonD. T., Treatment of Anxiety Through Systematic Desensitization in Therapy Groups, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 71, pp. 124–135, 1966.
51.
ShermanA. R., Real Life Exposure as a Primary Therapeutic Factor in the Desensitization Treatment of Fear, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 79, pp. 19–28, 1972.
52.
ZemoreR., Systematic Desensitization as a Method of Teaching a General Anxiety Reducing Skill, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43: 2, pp. 157–161, 1975.
53.
JacobsonE., You Must Relax, McGraw Hill, New York, 1962.
54.
JacobsonE., Anxiety and Tension Control, Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1964.
55.
JacobsonE., Modern Treatment of Tense Patients, C. C. Thomas, Springfield, 1970.
56.
LindemanH., Relieve Tension the Autogenic Way, Wyden, New York, 1971.
57.
LazarusA. A. and AbromovitzL., The Use of Emotive Emagery in the Treatment of Children's Phobias, Journal of Mental Science, 108, pp. 191–195, 1962.
58.
BrownB., New Mind, New Body — Biofeedback: New Directions for the Mind, Harper & Row, New York, 1974.
59.
JonasG., Visceral Learning, Viking, New York, 1973.
60.
GuytonA., Basic Human Physiology: Normal Functions and Mechanisms of Disease, W. B. Saunder, Philadelphia, 1971.
61.
OrnsteinR., The Psychology of Consciousness, Freeman, San Francisco, 1972.
62.
BudzynskiT. and StoyvaJ., Biofeedback Techniques in Behaviour Therapy, In: BirbaumerN. (ed.), The Mystery of Anxiety: Contributions of Neuropsychology to Anxiety Research, In Press.
63.
BudzynskiT.StoyvaJ., and AdlerC., Feedback-Induced Relaxation, Application to Tension Headache, Journal of Behaviour Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 1, pp. 205–211, 1970.
64.
ShipmanW.OkenD., and HealthE., Muscle Tension and Effort at Self Control During Anxiety, Archives of General Psychiatry, 23, pp. 359–368, 1970.
65.
LoveW. A., The Use of Biofeedback E. M. G. Training With a Clinical Case, Unpublished Paper, Nova University, 1972.
66.
LoveW. A., Problems in Therapeutic Application of E. M. G. Feedback, Unpublished Paper, Nova University, 1973.
67.
BasmajianJ. W., Muscles Alive, Their Functions Revealed by Electromyography, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, 1967.
68.
BasmajianJ. W., Electromyography Comes of Age, Science, pp. 603–612, May 12, 1972.
69.
DavisonG. G., Anxiety Under Total Curarization: Implications for the Role of Muscular Relaxation in the Desensitization of Neurotic Fears, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 143, pp. 443–448, 1966.
70.
RachmanS., The Role of Muscular Relaxation in Desensitization Therapy, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 6, pp. 159–166, 1968.
71.
LazarusA. A., The Elimination of Children's Phobias by Deconditioning, In: EysenckH. (ed.), Behaviour Therapy and the Neuroses, Pergamon, Oxford, 1960.
72.
KushnerM., Desensitization of a Post Traumatic Phobia, In: EysenckJ. (ed.), Behaviour Therapy and the Neuroses, Pergamon, Oxford, 1960.
73.
PattersonG. R., A Learning Theory Approach to the Treatment of a School Phobic Child, In: UllmanL. P. and KrasnerL. (eds.), Case Studies in Behaviour Modification, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1965.
74.
GarveyW.P. and HegrevesJ. R., Desensitization Techniques in the Treatment of School Phobia, American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 32, pp. 89–98, 1962.
75.
TastoD. L., Systematic Desensitization, Muscle Relaxation and Visual Imagery in the Counter-Conditioning of a Four Year Old Phobic Child, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 7, pp. 409–411, 1969.
76.
GrazianoA. M., In the Mental Health Industry, Illness is our Most Important Product, Psychology Today, 5, pp. 12–18, 1972.
77.
WishP. A.HasaziJ. E., and JurgelaA. R., Automated Direct Deconditioning of a Childhood Phobia, Journal of Behaviour Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 4, pp. 279–283, 1973.
78.
AlexanderA. B.MiklichD. R., and HershkoffH., The Immediate Effects of Systematic Relaxation Training on Peak Expiratory Flow-Rate in Asthmatic Children, Psychomatic Medicine, 34, 1972.
79.
MillerL. C.BarrettC. L.HampE., and NobleH., Comparison of Reciprocal Inhibition Psychotherapy and Waiting List Control for Phobic Children, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 79, pp. 269–279, 1972.
80.
GrillsG., Report on Relaxation Training, Unpublished Paper, David and Mary Thomson Collegiate, 1975.
81.
KoeppenA. S., Relaxation Training for Children, Elementary School Guidance and Counselling, pp. 14–21, October 1974.
82.
JacobsonE., Teaching and Learning: New Methods for Old Arts, National Foundation for Progressive Relaxation, Washington, D. C., 1973.
83.
AllenG. J., Effectiveness of Study Counselling and Desensitization in Alleviating Test Anxiety in College Students, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 77, pp. 282–289, 1971.
84.
CornishR. D. and DilleyJ., Comparison of Three Methods of Reducing Test Anxiety: Systematic Desensitization Impulsive Therapy and Study Counselling, Journal of Counselling Psychology, 20: 6, pp. 499–503, 1973.
85.
DonnerL. and GuerneyG., Automated Group Desensitization for Test Anxiety, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 7, pp. 1–13, 1969.
86.
EmeryJ. R. and KrumboltzJ. R., Standard Versus Individual Hierarchies in Desensitization to Reduce Text Anxiety, Journal of Counselling Psychology, 14, pp. 204–209, 1967.
87.
LaxerR. M.QuarterJ.KoomanA., and WalkerK., Systematic Desensitization and Relaxation of High-Test Anxious Secondary School Students, Journal of Counselling Psychology, 16, pp. 446–451, 1969.
88.
SimardT., Fine Motor Control in Healthy Children, Pediatrics, 43, pp. 1035–1041, 1969.
89.
ConnolyD.DessermanR., and KisschvinkJ., Elecgromyography (E.M.G.) Biofeedback on Hyperkinetic Children, Journal of Biofeedback, 2: 2, pp. 24–30, Spring-Summer 1974.
90.
EysenckH. J. and RachmanS., The Causes and Cures of Neurosis, Routledge, London, 1965.
91.
BentlerP. M., An Infant's Phobia Treated With Reciprocal Inhibition Therapy, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 3, pp. 185–189, 1962.