It is well documented that males die at younger ages than females. Although the sex differential in longevity has some basis in biology, many gender-related socialization practices in place in American culture build on existing genetic predispositions to cause males to be more vulnerable than females to early death, especially violent death and death from heart disease. Demographic data are presented to document premature death rates for men relative to women, especially violent death from accidents, suicide, and homicide. A hierarchy of causes of death that is increasingly subject to human influence is presented along with a multidimensional model for understanding early death among males. Conclusions are offered for some reconsiderations of masculinity that would be helpful in reducing the sex differential in longevity.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
CanettoS. S., & SakinofskyI. (1998). The gender paradox in suicide. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 28, 1–23.
2.
EriksonE. H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle.New York: Norton.
3.
HaalstromT.LapidusL.BengtssonC., & EdstromK. (1986). Psychosocial factors and risk of ischemic heart disease and death in women: A twelve-year follow-up of participants in the population study of women in Gothenburg, Sweden. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 30, 451–459.
4.
HolingerP. C.OfferD.BarterJ. T., & BellC. C. (1994). Suicide and homicide among adolescents.New York: The Guilford Press.
5.
JamisonK. R. (1999). Night falls fast: Understanding suicide.New York: Knopf.
6.
KastenbaumR. J. (2000). Death, society, and human experience (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
7.
KushnerH. I. (1995). Women and suicidal behavior: Epidemiology, gender, and lethality in historical perspective. In CanettoS. S. & LesterD. (Eds.), Women and suicidal behavior (pp. 11–34). New York: Springer.
8.
LevitonD. (1997). Horrendous death. In StrackS. (Ed.), Death and the quest for meaning (pp. 301–328). New York: Jason Aronson Inc.
9.
LinehanM. M. (1973). Suicide and attempted suicide: Study of perceived sex differences. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 37, 31–34.
10.
LoreR. K., & SchultzL. A. (1993). Control of human aggression. A comparative perspective. American Psychologist, 48, 16–25.
11.
MarksA. (1989). Structural parameters of sex, race, age, and education and their influence on attitude toward suicide. Omega, 19, 327–336.
12.
McDowellE. E. (2000). Suicide survivorship. In BryantC. D. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of criminology and deviant behavior, IV (pp. 528–530). Philadelphia, PA: Brunner-Routledge.
13.
Nolen-HoeksemaS. (1987). Sex differences in unipolar depression: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 259–282.
14.
OunstedM. (1972). Gender and intrauterine growth witha note onthe sex proband as a research tool. In OunstedC. & TaylorD. C. (Eds.), Gender differences: Their ontogeny and significance (pp. 177–201). London: Churchill Livingston.
15.
RosenthalM. J. (1981). Sexual differences in the suicidal behavior of young people. Adolescent Psychiatry, 9, 422–442.
16.
StillionJ. M. (1985). Death and the sexes: An examination of differential longevity, attitudes, behaviors, and coping skills.Washington, DC: Hemisphere.
17.
StillionJ. M. (1995). Premature death among males: Extending the bottom line of men's health. In SaboD. & GordonD. F. (Eds.) Men's health and illness: Gender, power, and the body.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
18.
StillionJ. M., & McDowellE. E. (1996). Suicide across the life span: Premature exits (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.
19.
StillionJ. M.McDowellE. E., & MayJ. H. (1984). Developmental trends and sex differences in adolescent attitudes toward suicide. Death Education, 8, 81–90.
20.
StillionJ. M.WhiteH.McDowellE. E., & EdwardsP. (1989). Ageism and sexism in suicide attitudes. Death Studies, 13, 247–261.
21.
TricomiU.SerrD., & SolishG. (1960). The ratio of male to female embryos as determined by the sex chromatin. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 79, 504–509.
22.
WeissmanM. M., & KlermanG. L. (1977). Sex differences and the epidemiology of depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 34, 98–111.
23.
WhiteH., & StillionJ. M. (1988). Sex differences in attitudes toward suicide: Do males stigmatize males?Psychology of Women Quarterly, 12, 235–259.
