An attempt is made to provide a cohesive conceptual frame upon which may be placed the recent advances in our understanding of the psychobiology of the affective disorders. Major literature in the areas of neurophysiology, endocrinology and biochemistry is reviewed and placed within a dynamic model which draws heavily upon ideas previously put forward by Meyer and von Bertalanffy. Phenomenologic and semantic difficulties which have retarded research in the depressions are also addressed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
YoungZJ: Doubt and Certainty in Science, A Biologist's Reflections on the Brain. New York, Oxford University Press, 1960.
2.
WhybrowPCMendelsJ: Towards a biology of depression: Some suggestions from neurophysiology. Amer J Psychiat125:45–54, 1969.
3.
CourtJH: Manic-depressive psychosis: An alternative conceptual model. Brit J Psychiat114:1523–530, 1968.
4.
CoppenAPrangeAJWhybrowPC: Methysergide in mania, a controlled trial. Lancet2:338–40, 1969.
5.
CarrollL: Through the Looking Glass and What Alice Found There. New York, St. Martin's Press, 1966.
6.
MendelsJCochraneC: The nosology of depression: The endogenous-reactive concept. Amer J Psychiat124:1–11, 1968.
7.
KendellRE: The Classification of Depressive Illness. London, Oxford University Press, 1968.
8.
HamiltonM: A rating scale for depression. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat23:56–62, 1960.
9.
BeckATWardCHMendelsonMMockJErbaughJ: An inventory for measuring depression. Arch Gen Psychiat4:561–62, 1961.
10.
ZungWWK: A self-rating depression scale. Arch Gen Psychiat12:63–70, 1965.
11.
MendelwiczJFleissJLFieveRR: Evidence of X-linkage in the transmission of manic depressive illness, JAMA222:1624–627, 1972.
12.
GreenRGoetzlUWhybrowPJacksonR: X-linked transmission of manic-depressive illness. JAMA223:1289, 1973.
13.
LiefA: The Commonsense Psychiatry of Dr. Adolf Meyer. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1948.
14.
FreudS: Mourning and melancholia, Collected Papers. New York, Basic Books, 1959, 4:152–70.
15.
HarlowHFZimmermannRR: Affectional responses in the infant monkey. Science130:421–32, 1959.
16.
LorenzK: On Aggression. New York, Harcourt, Brace and World, 1963.
17.
HillD: Depression: Disease, reaction or posture?Amer J Psychiat125:37–49, 1968.
18.
BentonRF: The structure of the depressive response to stress. Amer J Psychiat128:1212–218, 1972.
19.
HolmesTHRaheRH: The social readjustment rating scale. J Psychosom Res11:213, 1967.
20.
WinokurGClaytonPJReichT: Manic Depressive Illness. St. Louis, C.V. Mosby, 1969.
21.
BernardC: An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine. Translated by GreeneH. New York, Macmillan, 1927, p 11.
22.
CannonWB: The Wisdom of the Body (rev ed). New York, Norton, 1932.
23.
von BertalanffyL: General System Theory. New York, George Braziller, 1968.
24.
WhatmoreGBEllisRMJr: Further neurophysiologic aspects of depressed states: An electromyographic study. Arch Gen Psychiat6:243–53, 1962.
25.
McCarronLT: Psychophysiological discriminants of reactive depression. Psychophysiol10:223–30, 1973.
26.
CoppenAJ: Depressed states and indolealkylamines. Adv Pharmacol 6, Pt B:283–91. New York, Academic Press, 1968.
27.
LemieuxGDavignonHGenestJ: Depressive states during Rauwofien therapy for hypertension. Canad Med Ass J74:522–26, 1956.
28.
SchildkrautJJ: Catecholamine hypothesis of affective disorders. Amer J Psychiat122:509–22, 1965.
29.
SchildkrautJJKetyS: Biogenic amines and emotion. Science156:21–37, 1967.
30.
LapinIPOxenkrugGF: Intensification of the central serotoninergic processes as a possible determinant of thymoleptic effect. Lancet1:132–36, 1969.
31.
GoodwinFKBunneyWE: A psychobiological approach to affective illness. Psych Ann3:19–53, 1973.
32.
McKinneyWTBunneyWE: Animal model of depression. Arch Gen Psychiat21:240–48, 1969.
33.
EbertMWPostRMGoodwinFK: Effect of physical activity on urinary 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol excretion in depressed patients. Lancet2:766, 1972.
34.
MaasJWFawcettJDekirmenjianH: 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol (MHPG) excretion in depressive states: Pilot study. Arch Gen Psychiat19:129–34, 1968.
35.
GreenspanKSchildkrautJJGordonEK: Catecholamine metabolites in affective disorder: III. 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol and other metabolites in patients treated with lithium carbonate. J Psychiat Res7:171–83, 1970.
36.
FawcettJMaasJWDekirmenjianH: Depression and 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol excretion, response to dextroamphetamine and tricyclic antidepressants. Arch Gen Psychiat26:246–51, 1972.
37.
PrangeAJWilsonICKnoxA: Thyroid-imipramine clinical and chemical interaction: Evidence for a receptor deficit in depression. J Psychiat Res9:187–205, 1972.
38.
AnderssonHRoosB: 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid in cerebrospinal fluid after administration of 5-hydroxytryptophan 1. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol26:293–97, 1968.
39.
AshcroftGW: 5-hydroxyindole compounds in the cerbrospinal fluid of patients with psychiatric or neurological diseases. LancetII:1049–52, 1966.
40.
DenckerSJMalmURoosBWerdiniusB: Acid monamine metabolites of cerebrospinal fluid in mental depression and mania. J Neurochem13:1545–548, 1966.
41.
MendelsJ: Biogenic amine metabolites in the cerebrospinal fluid of depressed and manic patients. Science175:1380–382, 1972.
42.
CoppenAJPrangeAJWhybrowPCNogueraR: Abnormalities of indoleamines in affective disorders. Arch Gen Psychiat26:474–78, 1972.
43.
GuldbergHCAshcroftGWCrawfordTBB: Concentrations of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid and homovanillic acid in the cerebrospinal fluid of the dog before and during treatment with probenecid. Life Sci5:1571–575, 1966.
44.
TamarkinNRGoodwinFKAxelrodJ: Rapid elevation of biogenic amine metabolites in human cerebrospinal fluid following probenecid. Life Sci9(1):1397–408, 1970.
45.
van PraggHMDorfJPuiteJ: 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid levels in the cerebrospinal fluid of depressed patients treated with probenecid. Nature225:1259–260, 1970.
46.
van PraggHMKorfJ: Cerebral monoamines and depression: An investigation with probenecid technique. Arch Gen Psychiat28:827–31, 1973.
47.
CoppenABrooksbankBWLPeetM: Tryptophan concentration in the cerebrospinal fluid of depressive patients. LancetI:1393, 1972.
48.
PapeschiRMcClureDJ: Homovanillic acid and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid in cerebrospinal fluid of depressed patients. Arch Gen Psychiat25:354–58, 1971.
49.
OlssonRRoosBE: Concentration of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid and homovanillic acid in the cerebrospinal fluid after treatment with probenecid in patients with Parkinson's disease. Nature219:502–503, 1968.
50.
DenckerSJ: Acid monamine metabolites of cerebrospinal fluid in mental depression and mania. J Neurochem13:1545–48, 1966.
51.
RoosBESjostromR: 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (and homovanillic acid) levels in the cerebrospinal fluid after probenecid application in patients with manic-depressive psychosis. Pharmacol Clin1:153–55, 1969.
52.
BowersMB: Cerebrospinal fluid, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid and homovanillic acid in psychiatric patients. Int J Neuropharmacol8:255–62, 1969.
53.
GoodwinFKPostRMDunnerDL: Cerebrospinal fluid amine metabolites in affective illness: The probenecid technique. Amer J Psychiat130:73–7, 1973.
54.
WilkS: Cerebrospinal fluid levels of 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol in affective disorders. Nature235:440–41, 1972.
55.
PostRMKotinJGoodwinFKGordonEK: Psychomotor activity and cerebrospinal fluid amine metabolites in affective illness. Amer J Psychiat130:67–72, 1973.
56.
ShawDMCampsFEEcclestonEG: 5-hydroxytryptamine in the hindbrain of depressive suicides. Brit J Psychiat113:1407–411, 1967.
57.
BourneHR: Noradrenaline, 5-hydroxytryptamine, and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid in hindbrains of suicidal patients. Lancet, October 12, 1968, pp. 805–808.
58.
RobinsonDSNiesA: Aging, monamines, and monoamine oxidase levels. LancetII:290–91, 1972.
59.
NiesARobinsonDS: Genetic control of platelet and plasma monoamine oxidase activity. Arch Gen Psychiat28:834–38, 1973.
60.
MendelsJHawkinsDR: Sleep and depression: A follow-up study. Arch Gen Psychiat16:536–42, 1967.
61.
HauriPChernikDHawkinsDMendelsJ: Sleep of depressed patients in remission. Proceedings, Annual meeting Association for Psychophysiologic study of sleep (APSS), 1973.
62.
PareCMBSandlerMJ: A clinical biochemical study of a trial of improniazid in the treatment of depression. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat22:247–51, 1959.
63.
GoodwinFKBrodieHKHMurphyDLBunneyWE: L-dopa, catecholamines and behavior: A clinical and biochemical study in depressed patients. Biol Psychiat2:341–66, 1970.
64.
SchildkrautJJKlermanGKFriendDGGreenblattJ: Biochemical and pressor effects of oral DL-dihydroxyphenylalanine in patients treated with antidepressant drugs. Ann NY Acad Sci107:1005–1015, 1963.
65.
CoppenAShawDMFarrellJP: Potentiation of the antidepressant effect of a monoamine-oxidase inhibitor by tryptophan. Lancet79–81, 1963.
66.
KleinDFDavisJM: Diagnosis and Drug Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders. Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins, 1969.
67.
GoodwinFKDunnerDLGershonES: Effect of L-dopa treatment on brain serotonin metabolism in depressed patients. Life Sci10:751–59, 1971.
68.
DunnerDLGoodwinFK: Effect of L-tryptophan on brain serotonin metabolism in depressed patients. Arch Gen Psychiat26:364–66, 1972.
69.
SchildkrautJJ: Neuropsychopharmacology and the affective disorders III. New Engl J Med281:302–307, 1969.
70.
StraughanDWBiscoeTJ: The pharmacology of hippocampal neurones. J Pharm Pharmacol17:60–61, 1965.
71.
JouvetM: Neurophysiology of the states of sleep. Psychol Rev47:117–77, 1967.
72.
GayMJTongeWL: The late effects of loss of parents in childhood. Brit J Psychiat113:753–59, 1967.
73.
WelchASWelchBL: Reduction of norepinephrine in the lower brainstem by psychological stimulus. Proc NAS60:478–81, 1968.
74.
WelchASWelchBL: Effect of stress and parachlorophenylalanine upon brain serotonin, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid and catecholamines in grouped and isolated mice. Biochem Pharmacol17:699–708, 1966.
75.
MurphyHBMWittkowerEDChanceNA: Crosscultural inquiry into the symptomatology of depression: A preliminary report. Int J Psychiat3:6–15, 1967.
WhybrowPCCoppenAPrangeAJ: Thyroid function and the response to L-liothyronine in depression. Arch Gen Psychiat26:242–45, 1972.
85.
McClureDJCleghornRA: Suppression studies in affective disorders. Canad Psychiat Ass J13:477–88, 1968.
86.
PrangeAJWilsonICRabonAMLiptonMA: Enhancement of imipramine antidepressant activity by thyroid hormone. Amer J Psychiat126:457–69, 1969.
87.
CoppenAWhybrowPCNogueraR: The comparative antidepressant value of L-tryptophan and imipramine with and without attempted potentiation by liothyronine. Arch Gen Psychiat26:234–41, 1972.
88.
WheatleyD: Potentiation of amitriptyline by thyroid hormone. Arch Gen Psychiat26:229–33, 1972.
89.
PrangeAJWilsonICKnoxA: Enhancement of imipramine by thyroid stimulatory hormone: Clinical and theoretical implications. Amer J Psychiat127:191–99, 1970.
90.
PrangeAJWilsonICLaraPP: Effects of thyrotropin releasing hormone in depression. LancetII:999–1002, 1972.
91.
KastinAJEhrensingRHSchalchDSAndersonMS: Improvement in mental depression with decreased thyrotropin response after administration of thyrotropin releasing hormone. LancetII:740–42, 1972.
92.
PrangeAJWilsonICKnoxAE: Thyroid-imipramine interaction: Clinical results and basic mechanisms, Brain Chemistry and Mental Disease. Edited by BengTOMcIssacWM. New York, Plenum, 1972, 19–213.
93.
GlassmanAHPerelJM: The clinical pharmacology of imipramine. Arch Gen Psychiat28:649–53, 1973.
94.
HamburgDALundeDT: Relation of behavioral, genetic and neuroendocrine factors to thyroid function, Genetic Diversity and Human Behavior. Edited by SpuhlerJN. Chicago, Aldine, 1967.
95.
GoslingPH: Thyroid and adrenocortical function in psychiatric illness. Lancet2:1343–46, 1968.
96.
GibsonJG: Emotions and the thyroid gland: A critical appraisal. J Psychosom Res6:93–116, 1962.
97.
DewhurstDEElKabirDJHarrisGWMandelbroteBM: A review of the effect of stress on the activity of the central nervous-pituitary-thyroid axis in animals and man. Confin Neurol30:161–96, 1968.
98.
MasonJW: A review of psychoendocrine research on the pituitary-thyroid system. Psychosom Med30:666–81, 1968.