Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

This overview addresses the basic chemistry, pharmacology, activity, medical uses, drug interactions and adverse side effects of the psychostimulants.

Keywords

psychostimulants methylphenidate dextroamphetamine pemoline chemical structure therapeutic use depression drug interactions adverse effects

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Satel

S. L.

and Nelson

J. C.

Stimulants in the Treatment of Depression: A Critical Overview, Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 50: 241–249, 1989.

Hoffman

B. B.

and Lefkowitz

R. J.

, Catecholamines and Sympathomimetic Drugs, in Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacologic Basis of Therapeutics (8th Edition), Gilman

A. G.

Rall

T. W.

Nies

A. S.

, and Taylor

(eds.), Pergamon Press, New York, 1990.

Patrick

K. S.

Mueller

R. A.

Gualtieri

C. T.

, and Breese

G. R.

, Pharmacokinetics and Actions of Methylphenidate, in Pharmacology: The Third Generation of Progress, Meltzer

H. Y.

(ed.), Raven Press, New York, 1987.

Brown

W. A.

Psychologic and Neuroendocrine Response to Methylphenidate, Archives of General Psychiatry, 34: 1103–1108, 1977.

Patrick

K. S.

Ellington

K. R.

, and Breese

G. R.

Distribution of Methylphenidate and P-Hydroxymethylphenidate in Rats, Journal of Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, 231: 61–65, 1984.

Brown

W. A.

Corriveau

D. P.

, and Ebert

M. H.

Acute Psychologic and Neuroendocrine Effects of Dextroamphetamine and Methylphenidate, Psychopharmacology, 58: 189–195, 1978.

Kuczenski

Segal

D. S.

Leith

N. J.

, and Applegate

C.D.

Effects of Amphetamine, Methylphenidate, and Apomorphine on Regional Brain Serotonin and 5-hydroxyindol Acetic Acid, Psychopharmacology, 93: 329–335, 1987.

Zametkin

A. J.

and Rapoport

J. L.

, Noradrenergic Hypothesis of Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity: A Critical Review, in Pharmacology: The Third Generation of Progress, Meltzer

H. Y.

(ed.), Raven Press, New York, 1987.

Bernardini

G. L.

Viscardi

, and German

D. C.

Amphetamine-induced and Spontaneous Release of Dopamine from A9 and A10 Cell Dendrites: An in vitro Electrophysiological Study in the Mouse, Journal of Neural Transmission, 84: 183–193, 1991.

10.

Chiarello

R. J.

and Cole

J. O.

The Use of Psychostimulants in General Psychiatry: A Reconsideration, Archives of General Psychiatry, 44: 286–295, 1987.

11.

Breitbart

and Mermelstein

Pemoline: An Alternative Psychostimulant for the Management of Depressive Disorders in Cancer Patients, Psychosomatics, 33: 352–356, 1992.

12.

Richardson

J. W.

Frederickson

P. A.

, and Lin

S. C.

Narcolepsy Update, Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 65: 991–998, 1990.

13.

Mitler

M. M.

Shafor

Hajdukovich

Timms

R. M.

, and Browman

C. P.

Treatment of Narcolepsy: Objective Studies on Methylphenidate, Pemoline, and Protriptyline, Sleep, 9: 260–264, 1986.

14.

Wilens

T. E.

and Biederman

The Stimulants, Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 15: 191–222, 1992.

15.

Ruel

J. M.

and Hickey

C. P.

Are Too Many Children being Treated with Methylphenidate?, Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 37: 570–572, 1992.

16.

Cowart

V. S.

The Ritalin Controversy: What's Made this Drug's Opponents Hyperactive, Journal of American Medical Association, 259: 2521–2523, 1988.

17.

Sustained-release Methylphenidate, Medical Letter of Drugs and Therapeutics, 26: 97–98, 1984.

18.

Rosse

R. B.

and Licamele

W. L.

Slow-release Methylphenidate: Problems when Children Chew Tablets, Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 4: 525, 1984.

19.

Srinivas

N. R.

Hubbard

J. W.

Korchinski

E. D.

, and Midha

K. K.

Enantioselective Pharmacokinetics of dl-threo-methylphenidate in Humans, Pharmaceutical Research 10: 14–21, 1993.

20.

Wender

P. H.

Reimherr

R. W.

Wood

, and Ward

A Controlled Study of Methylphenidate in the Treatment of Attention Deficit Disorder, Residual Type, in Adults, American Journal of Psychiatry, 142: 547–552, 1985.

21.

Ratey

J. J.

Greenberg

M. S.

, and Lindem

K. J.

Combination of Treatments for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Adults, Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 179: 699–701, 1991.

22.

Matochik

J. A.

Nordahl

T. E.

Gross

Semple

W. E.

King

A. C.

Cohen

R. M.

, and Zametkin

A. J.

Effects of Acute Stimulant Medication on Cerebral Metabolism in Adults with Hyperactivity, Neuropsychopharmacology, 8: 377–386, 1993.

23.

Lichtigfeld

F. J.

and Gillman

M. A.

Methylphenidate for Reversal of Drug-induced Coma, Clinical Neuropharmacology, 15: 459–460, 1990.

24.

Dodson

M. E.

and Fryer

J. M.

Postoperative Effects of Methylphenidate, British Journal of Anesthesia, 52: 1265–1270, 1980.

25.

Appleby

J. G.

Use of Dextroamphetamine in Epilepsy, Journal of South Carolina Medical Association, 81: 281–282, 1985.

26.

King

G. A.

and Burnham

W. M.

Effects of D-amphetamine and Apomorphine in a New Animal Model of Petit Mal Epilepsy, Psychopharmacology, 69: 281–285, 1980.

27.

Wroblewski

B. A.

Leary

J. M.

Phelan

A. M.

Whyte

, and Manning

Methylphenidate and Seizure Frequency in Brain Injured Patients with Seizure Disorder, Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 53: 86–89, 1992.

28.

Itil

T. M.

and Soldatos

Epileptogenic Side Effects of Psychotropic Drugs: Practical Recommendations, Journal of the American Medical Association, 244: 1460–1463, 1980.

29.

Ghofrani

Possible Phenytoin-methylphenidate Interaction, Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 30: 267–268, 1988.

30.

Garretson

L. K.

Perl

J. M.

, and Dayton

P. G.

, Methylphenidate Interaction with Both Anticonvulsant and Ethylbiscumacetate, JAMA, 207: 2053–2056, 1969.

31.

Mirkin

B. L.

and Wright

Drug Interaction: Effect of Methylphenidate on the Disposition of Diphenylhydantoin in Man, Neurology, 21: 1123–1128, 1971.

32.

Kupferberg

H. J.

Jeffrey

, and Hunningshake

D. B.

Effect of Methylphenidate on Plasma Anticonvulsant Levels, Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 13: 201–204, 1972.

33.

Hernandez

D. E.

Adcock

J. W.

Orlando

R. C.

Patrick

K. S.

Nemeroff

C. B.

, and Prange

A. J.

Jr. Prevention of Stress-induced Gastric Ulcers by Dopamine Agonists in the Rat, Life Sciences, 35: 2453–2458, 1984.

34.

Bruera

Brennis

Paterson

A. H.

, and MacDonald

R. N.

Use of Methylphenidate as an Adjuvant to Narcotic Analgesics in Patients with Advanced Cancer, Journal of Pain & Symptom Management, 4: 3–6, 1989.

35.

Bruera

Miller

M. J.

MacMillan

, and Keuhn

Neuropsychological Effects of Methylphenidate in Patients Receiving a Continuous Infusion of Narcotics for Cancer Pain, Pain, 48: 163–166, 1992.

36.

Breitbart

Psychotropic Adjuvant Analgesic Drugs for Cancer Pain, Journal of Pain & Symptom Management, 4 [suppl 3]:2–4, 1989.

37.

Cantello

Aguggia

Gilli

Delsedime

Riccio

Rainero

, and Mutani

Analgesic Action of Methylphenidate on Parkinsonian Sensory Symptoms. Mechanisms and Pathophysiological Implications, Archives of Neurology, 45: 973–976, 1988.

38.

Weizman

Dick

Gil-Ad

Weitz

Tyano

, and Laron

Effects of Acute and Chronic Methylphenidate Administration on β-endorphin, Growth Hormone, Prolactin and Cortisol in Children with Attention Deficit Disorder and Hyperactivity, Life Sciences, 40: 2247–2252, 1987.

39.

Ferguson

J. T.

and Funderburk

W. H.

Improving Senile Behavior with Reserpine and Ritalin, Journal of the American Medical Association, 160: 259–263, 1956.

40.

Fann

W. E.

Use of Methylphenidate to Counteract Acute Dystonic Effects of Phenothiazines, American Journal of Psychiatry, 122: 1293–1294, 1966.

41.

van der Meche

F. G.

Boogaard

J. M.

, and van den Berg

Treatment of Hyper-somnolence in Myotonic Dystrophy with a CNS Stimulant, Muscle & Nerve, 9: 341–344, 1986.

42.

Nathan

M. D.

Leshner

R. T.

, and Keller

A. P.

Jr. Intractable Hiccups (singultus), Laryngoscope, 90: 1612–1618, 1980.

43.

Diamond

J. M.

and Stein

J. M.

Enuresis: A New Look at Stimulant Therapy, Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 28: 395–397, 1983.

44.

Evans

R. W.

Gualtieri

C. T.

, and Patterson

Treatment of Chronic Closed Head Injury with Psychostimulant Drugs: A Controlled Case Study and an Appropriate Evaluation Procedure, Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 175: 106–110, 1987.

45.

Gualtieri

C. T.

and Evans

R. W.

Stimulant Treatment for the Neurobehavioral Sequelae of Traumatic Brain Injury, Brain Injury, 2: 273–290, 1988.

46.

Mooney

G. F.

and Haas

L. J.

Effect of Methylphenidate on Brain Injury-related Anger, Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 74: 153–160, 1993.

47.

Weinshenker

B. G.

Penman

Bass

Ebers

G. C.

, and Rice

G. P.

A Double-blind, Randomized, Crossover Trial of Pemoline in Fatigue Associated with Multiple Sclerosis, Neurology, 42: 1468–1471, 1992.

48.

Check

J. H.

Gentlesk

M. J.

, and Falanga

Sympathomimetic Amines in the Treatment of Chronic Urticaria: Two Case Reports, Cutis, 34: 388–390, 1984.

49.

Susmano

Volgman

A. S.

, and Buckingham

T. A.

Beneficial Effects of Dextroamphetamine in the Treatment of Vasodepressor Syncope, Pace-Pacing & Clinical Electrophysiology, 16: 1235–1239, 1993.

50.

Khantzian

E. J.

Gawin

Kleber

H. D.

, and Riordan

C. E.

Methylphenidate (Ritalin) Treatment of Cocaine Dependence: A Preliminary Report, Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 1: 7–12, 1984.

51.

Weiss

R. D.

Pope

H. G.

Jr. , and Mirin

S. M.

Treatment of Chronic Cocaine Abuse and Attention Deficit Disorder, Residual Type, with Magnesium Pemoline, Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 15: 69–72, 1985.

52.

Low

R. B.

Jones

Carter

, and Cadoret

R. J.

The Effect of D-amphetamine and Ephedrine on Smoking Attitude and Behavior, Addictive Behaviors, 9: 335–345, 1984.

53.

O'Donnell

V. M.

Pitts

W. M.

, and Fann

W. E.

Noradrenergic and Cholinergic Agents in Korsakoff's Syndrome, Clinical Neuropharmacology, 9: 65–70, 1986.

54.

Feighner

J. P.

Herbstein

, and Damlouji

Combined MAOI, TCA, and Direct Stimulant Therapy of Treatment-resistant Depression, Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 46: 206–209, 1985.

55.

Drimmer

E. J.

Gitlin

M. J.

, and Gwirtsman

H. E.

Desipramine and Methylphenidiate Combination Treatment for Depression: Case Report, American Journal of Psychiatry, 140: 241–242, 1983.

56.

Brown

and Brawley

Dexamethasone Suppression Test and Mood Response to Methylphenidate in Primary Depression, American Journal of Psychiatry, 140: 990–993, 1983.

57.

Sovner

Amphetamine and Tranylcypromine in Treatment-resistant Depression, Biological Psychiatry, 28: 1011–1102, 1990.

58.

Gupta

Ghaly

, and Dewan

Augmenting Fluoxetine with Dextroamphetamine to Treat Refractory Depression, Hospital & Community Psychiatry, 43: 281–283, 1992.

59.

Metz

and Shader

R. I.

Combination of Fluoxetine with Pemoline in the Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder, International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 6: 93–96, 1991.

60.

Fawcett

Kravitz

H. M.

Zajecka

J. M.

, and Schaff

M. R.

CNS Stimulant Potentiation of Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors in Treatment-refractory Depression, Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 11: 127–132, 1991.

61.

Elizur

Wintner

, and Davidson

The Clinical and Psychological Effects of Pemoline in Depressed Patients—A Controlled Study, International Pharmacopsychiatry, 14: 127–134, 1979.

62.

Warneke

Psychostimulants in Psychiatry, Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 35: 3–10, 1990.

63.

Meyers

Treatment of Imipramine-resistant Depression and Lithium-resistant Mania through Drug Interactions, American Journal of Psychiatry, 135: 1420–1421, 1978.

64.

Flemenbaum

Methylphenidate: A Catalyst for the Tricyclic Antidepressants?, American Journal of Psychiatry, 128: 239, 1971.

65.

Little

K. Y.

D-Amphetamine versus Methylphenidate Effects in Depressed Inpatients, Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 54: 349–355, 1993.

66.

Messner

Methylphenidate Treatment of Bulimia Nervosa after Surgery, Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 34: 824–852, 1989.

67.

Clower

C. G.

Treatment of Mania with Dextroamphetamine, Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 49: 283, 1988.

68.

Beckmann

and Heinemann

Proceedings: D-amphetamine in Manic Syndrome, Arzneimittel Forschung, 26: 1185–1186, 1976.

69.

Brown

W. A.

and Mueller

Alleviation of Manic Symptoms with Catecholamine Agonists, American Journal of Psychiatry, 136: 230–231, 1979.

70.

Garvey

M. J.

Hwang

Teubner-Rhodes

Zander

, and Rhem

Dextroamphetamine Treatment of Mania, Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 48: 412–413, 1987.

71.

Robinson

Mayeroff

Alvir

Cooper

, and Lieberman

Mood Responses of Remitted Schizophrenics to Methylphenidate Infusion, Psychopharmacology, 105: 247–252, 1991.

72.

Goldberg

T. E.

Bigelow

L. B.

Weinberger

D. R.

Daniel

D. G.

, and Kleinman

J. E.

Cognitive and Behavioral Effects of the Coadministration of Dextroamphetamine and Haloperidol in Schizophrenia, American Journal of Psychiatry, 148: 78–84, 1991.

73.

Hurwitz

T. A.

Narcosuggestion in Chronic Conversion Symptoms using Combined Intravenous Amobarbital and Methylphenidate, Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 33: 147–152, 1988.

74.

Insel

T. R.

Hamilton

J. A.

Guttmacher

L. B.

, and Murphy

D. L.

D-amphetamine in Obsessive-compulsive Disorder, Psychopharmacology, 80: 231–235, 1983.

75.

Swinson

R. P.

and Joffe

R. T.

Biological Challenges in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 12: 269–275, 1988.

76.

Joffe

R. T.

Swinson

R. P.

, and Levitt

J. A.

Acute Psychostimulant Challenge in Primary Obsessive-compulsive Disorder, Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 11: 237–241, 1991.

77.

Sabelli

H. C.

Fawcett

Javaid

J. I.

, and Bagri

The Methylphenidate Test for Differentiating Desipramine-responsive from Nortriptyline-Responsive Depression, American Journal of Psychiatry, 140: 212–214, 1983.

78.

Faber

Williams

Prescott

Bassett

, and Bixler

Dextroamphetamine and Dexamethasone Suppression Test Prediction of Desipramine Response, Biological Psychiatry, 25: 657–660, 1989.

79.

Little

K. Y.

Amphetamine, but not Methylphenidate, Predicts Antidepressant Efficacy, Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 8: 177–183, 1988.

80.

Fawcett

Kravitz

H. M.

, and Sabelli

H. C.

, Stimulant Challenge Tests, in Handbook of Psychiatric Procedures, Vol. 1, Hall

R. C. W.

and Beresford

T. P.

(eds.), Spectrum Publications, New York, 1984.

81.

Weinstein

Deciding which Antidepressant to Use, American Journal of Psychiatry, 135: 620–621, 1978.

82.

Kraus

M. F.

and Burch

E. A.

Jr. Methylphenidate Hydrochloride as an Antidepressant: Controversy, Case Studies, and Review, Southern Medical Journal, 85: 985–991, 1992.

83.

Lazarus

L. W.

Winemiller

D. R.

Lingam

V. R.

Neyman

Hartman

Abassian

Kartan

Groves

, and Fawcett

Efficacy and Side Effects of Methylphenidate for Poststroke Depression, Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 53: 447–449, 1992.

84.

Holmes

V. F.

Fernandez

, and Levy

J. K.

Psychostimulant Response in AIDS-related Complex Patients, Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 50: 5–8, 1989.

85.

Fernandez

Levy

J. K.

, and Galizzi

Response of HIV-Related Depression to Psychostimulants: Case Reports, Hospital & Community Psychiatry, 39: 628–631, 1988.

86.

Angrist

d'Hollosy

Sanfilipo

Satriano

Diamond

Simberkoff

, and Weinreb

Central Nervous System Stimulants as Symptomatic Treatments for AIDS-related Neuropsychiatric Impairment, Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 12: 268–272, 1992.

87.

Fernandez

Adams

Levy

J. K.

Holmes

V. F.

Neidhart

, and Mansell

P. W. A.

Cognitive Impairment Due to AIDS-related Complex and Its Response to Psychostimulants, Psychosomatics, 29: 38–46, 1988.

88.

Walling

V. R.

and Pfefferbaum

The Use of Methylphenidate in a Depressed Adolescent with AIDS, Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 11: 195–197, 1990.

89.

Ling

M. H. M.

Perry

P. J.

, and Tsuang

M. T.

Side Effects of Corticosteroid Therapy, Archives of General Psychiatry, 38: 471–447, 1981.

90.

Barnes

D. M.

Steroids may Influence Changes in Mood, Science, 232: 1344–1345, 1986.

91.

Holland

J. C.

and Lesko

L. M.

, Chemotherapy, Endocrine Therapy, and Immunotherapy, in Handbook of Psychooncology, Holland

J. C.

and Rowland

J. H.

(eds.), Oxford University Press, New York, 1989.

92.

Craven

J. L.

Methylphenidate for Cyclosporine-associated Organic Mood Disorder, American Journal of Psychiatry, 146: 553, 1989.

93.

Kaufmann

M. W.

Cassem

Murray

, and MacDonald

The Use of Methylphenidate in Depressed Patients after Cardiac Surgery, Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 45: 82–84, 1984.

94.

Fernandez

Adams

Holmes

V. F.

Levy

J. K.

, and Neidhart

Methylphenidate for Depressive Disorders in Cancer Patients: An Alternative to Standard Antidepressants, Psychosomatics, 28: 455–461, 1987.

95.

Fernandez

and Adams

Methylphenidate Treatment of Patients with Head and Neck Cancer, Head & Neck Surgery, 8: 296–300, 1985.

96.

Fernandez

Adams

Levy

J. K.

Holmes

, and Gagen

Depression and Cancer: An Update, Texas Medicine, 82: 46–49, 1986.

97.

Roccaforte

W. H.

and Burke

W. J.

Use of Psychostimulants for the Elderly, Hospital & Community Psychiatry, 41: 1330–1335, 1990.

98.

Katon

and Raskind

Treatment of Depression in the Medically Ill Elderly with Methylphenidate, American Journal of Psychiatry, 137: 963–965, 1980.

99.

Beyer

K. L.

Bidkel

J. T.

, and Butt

J. H.

Ischemic Colitis associated with Dextroamphetamine Use, Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology, 13: 198–201, 1991.

100.

Trugman

J. M.

Cerebral Arteritis and Oral Methylphenidate, Lancet, 1: 584–585, 1988.

101.

Kokkinos

and Levine

S. R.

Possible Association of Ischemic Stroke with Phentermine, Stroke, 24: 310–313, 1993.

102.

Patterson

J. F.

Hepatitis Associated with Pemoline, Southern Medical Journal, 77: 938, 1984.

103.

Nehra

Mullick

Ishak

K. G.

, and Zimmerman

H. J.

Pemoline-associated Hepatic Injury, Gastroenterology, 99: 1517–1519, 1990.

104.

Merriam

A. E.

Pemoline-induced Abnormal Involuntary Movements, Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10: 302–303, 1990.

105.

Briscoe

J. G.

Curry

S. C.

Gerkin

R. D.

, and Ruiz

R. R.

Pemoline-induced Choreoathetosis and Rhabdomyolysis, Medical Toxicology & Adverse Drug Experience, 3: 72–76, 1988.

106.

Lindau

and de Girolami

Pemoline and the Prostate, Lancet, 1: 738, 1986.

107.

Erenberg

Cruse

R. P.

, and Rothner

A. D.

Gilles de la Tourette's Syndrome: Effects of Stimulant Drugs, Neurology, 35: 1346–1348, 1985.

108.

Fiedler

V. C.

Alopecia: A Relationship to Amphetamine Use?

Journal of the American Medical Association, 259: 1876, 1988.

109.

Voron

D. A.

Alopecia and Amphetamine Use, Journal of the American Medical Association, 260: 183, 1988.

110.

Fiedler

V. C.

Alopecia and Amphetamine Use (reply), Journal of the American Medical Association, 260: 184, 1988.

111.

Dunnick

J. K.

and Elwell

M. R.

Toxicity Studies of Amphetamine Sulfate, Ampicillin Trihydrate, Codeine, 8-methoxypsoralen Alpha-methyldopa, Penicillin VK and Propantheline Bromide in Rats and Mice, Toxicology, 56: 123–136, 1989.

112.

Rickels

Gordon

P. E.

Gansman

D. H.

Weise

C. C.

Pereira-Ogan

J. A.

, and Hesbacher

P. T.

Pemoline and Methylphenidate in Mildly Depressed Outpatients, Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 11: 698–710, 1970.

113.

Lucas

P. B.

Gardner

D. L.

Wolkowitz

W. M.

Tucker

E. E.

, and Cowdry

R. W.

Methylphenidate-induced Cardiac Arrhythmias, New England Journal of Medicine, 315: 1485, 1986.

114.

Husain

Chapel

, and Malek-Ahmadi

Methylphenidate, Neuroleptics and Dyskinesia-dystonia, Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 25: 254–258, 1980.

115.

Denckla

M. B.

Bemporad

J. R.

, and MacKay

M. C.

Tics following Methylphenidate Administration: A Report of 20 Cases, Journal of the American Medical Association, 235: 1349–1351, 1976.

116.

Extein

Methylphenidate-induced Choreoathetosis, American Journal of Psychiatry, 135: 252–253, 1978.

117.

Burd

and Kerbeshian

Stuttering and Stimulants [letter], Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 11: 72–73, 1991.

118.

Polchert

S. E.

and Morse

R. M.

Pemoline Abuse, Journal of the American Medical Association, 254: 946–947, 1985.

119.

Leong

G. B.

Shaner

A. L.

, and Silva

J. A.

Narcolepsy, Paranoid Psychosis, and Analeptic Abuse, Psychiatric Journal of the University of Ottawa, 14: 481–483, 1989.

120.

Jacobs

Silverstone

, and Rees

The Neuroendocrine Response to Oral Dextroamphetamine in Normal Subjects, International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 4: 135–147, 1989.

Medical Use of Psychostimulants: An Overview

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References