A number of inherited craniofacial diseases are known to be associated with gene mutations. Inherited genetic disorders of enamel formation called amelogenesis imperfecta (AI) affect the human population with a prevalence of 1 in 14,000 in the United States. Amelogenins, the major proteins in developing enamel matrix of mammalian teeth, have been suggested to participate in normal enamel matrix biomineralization, as well as with abnormal biomineralization such as seen in Al. The complementary DNA for mouse amelogenin gene (AMEL) has been cloned, characterized, and used as a probe to establish the chromosomal locations of AMEL for mouse and man. The human AMEL gene sequences have been located to the distal short arm p22.1 → p22.3 region of the X chromosome, and the pericentromeric region of the Y chromosome. An assignment of human AMEL gene to the X chromosome p22 region together with a recent assignment of the X-linked Al disease locus to the Xp22.2 region support the association of the AMEL-X gene with Al. This also leads us to propose that a mutated AMEL-X gene produces altered amelogenin polypeptide, which is defective in its ability to participate in mineralization of enamel matrix, thus giving rise to the X-linked phenotypes of Al.
AntonarakisS.E. (1989). Diagnosis of genetic disorders at the DNA level.New Engl J Med320: 153–163.
2.
AntonarakisS.E., WaberP.G., KitturS.D., PatelA.S., KazazianH.H., MellisM.A., CountsR.B., StamatoyannopoulosG., BowieE.J.W., FassD.N., PittmanD.D., WozneyJ.M., TooleJ.J. (1985). Hemophilia A: detection of molecular defects and of carriers by DNA analysis.N Engl J Med313: 842–848.
3.
AobaT., FukaeM., TanabeT., ShimizuM., MorenoE.C. (1987a). Selective adsorption of porcine-amelogenins onto hydroxyapatite and their inhibitory activity on hydroxyapatite growth in supersaturated solutions.Calcif Tissue Int41: 281–289.
4.
AobaT., TanabeT., MorenoE.C. (1987b). Function of amelogenins in porcine enamel mineralization during the secretory stage of amelogenesis.Adv Dent Res1(2): 252–260.
5.
BackmanB. (1988). Amelogenesis imperfecta — clinical manifestations in 51 families in a northern Swedish county.Scand J Dent Res96: 505–516.
6.
BackmanB., HolmA-K. (1986). Amelogenesis imperfecta: prevalence and incidence in a northern Swedish county.Community Dent Oral Epidemiol14: 43–47.
7.
BackmanB., HolmgrenG. (1988). Amelogenesis imperfecta: a genetic study.Hum Hered38: 189–206.
8.
BallabioA., ParentiG., CarrozzoR., SebastioG., AndriaG., BuckleV., FraserN., CraigI., RocchiM., RomeoG., JobsisA.C., PersicoM.G. (1987). Isolation and characterization of a steroid sulfatase cDNA clone: genomic deletions in patients with X-chromosome-linked ichthyosis.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA84: 4519–4523.
9.
BallabioA., ParentiG., TippettP., MondelloC., Di MaioS., TenoreA., AndriaG. (1986). X-linked ichthyosis, due to steroid sulfatase deficiency, associated with Kallmann syndrome (hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and anosmial): linkage relationships with Xg and cloned DNA sequences from the distal short arm of the X chromosome.Hum Genet72: 237–240.
BenderW., SpiererP., HognessD.S. (1983). Chromosomal walking and jumping to isolate DNA from the Ace and Rosy loci bithorax complex and Drosophila malanogaster.J Mol Biol168: 17–33.
12.
BjómssonÅ, ÅrnasonA., TippetP. (1989). X-linked cleft palate and ankyloglossia in an Icelandic family.Cleft Palate J26: 3–8.
13.
BotsteinD., WhiteR.L., SkolnickM., DavisR. (1980). Construction of a genetic linkage map in man using restriction fragment length polymorphisms.Am J Hum Genet32: 314–331.
BurgoyneP.S. (1982). Genetic homology and crossing over in the X and Y chromosomes of mammals.Hum Genet61: 85–90.
16.
CappechiM.R. (1989a). Altering the genome by homologous recombination.Science244: 1288–1292.
17.
CappechiM.R. (1989b). The new mouse genetics: altering the genome by gene targeting.Trends Genet5(3): 70–76.
18.
CarothersA.M., UrlaubG., MuchaJ., GrunbergerD., ChasinL.A.1989. Point mutation analysis in a mammalian gene: rapid preparation of total RNA, PCR amplification of cDNA, and Taq sequencing by a novel method.BioTechniques7: 494–499.
19.
ChehabF.F., DohertyM., CaiS., KanY-W, CooperS., RubinE.M. (1987). Detection of sickle cell anaemia and thalassaemias.Nature329: 293–294.
20.
ChosackA., EidelmanE., WisotskiI., CohenT. (1979). Amelogenesis imperfecta among Israeli Jews and the description of a new type of local hypoplastic autosomal recessive amelogenesis imperfecta.Oral Surg47: 148–156.
21.
CollinA., Cat linT., KidsonA., MaxsonR. (1988). Closely-linked early and late histone genes are differentially expressed after injection into sea urchin zygotes.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA85: 507–510.
22.
CollinsF.S., WeissmanS.M. (1984). Directional cloning of DNA fragments at a large distance from an initial probe: a-circularization method.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA81: 6812–6816.
CottonR.G.H., RodriguesN.R., CampbellR.D. (1988). Reactivity of cytosine and thymine in single-base-pair mismatches with hydroxylamine and osmium tetroxide and its application to the study of mutations.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA85: 4397–4401.
25.
CrawfordP.J.M., EvansR.D., AldredM.J. (1988). Amelogenesis imperfecta: autosomal dominant hypomaturation-hypoplasia type with taurodontism.Dent J164: 71–73.
26.
CurryC.J.R., MagenisR.E., BrownM., LanmanJ.T., TsaiJ., O'LagueP., GoodfellowP., MohandasT., BergnerE.A., ShapiroL.J. (1984). Inherited chondrodysplasia punctata due to a deletion of the terminal short arm of an X chromosome.N Engl J Med311: 1010–1015.
27.
DalcusiG., MenanteauJ., KerebelL.M., MitreD. (1984). Enamel crystals: size, shape, length, and growing process; high resolution TEM and biochemical study. In: FearnheadR.W., SugaS., eds. Tooth Enamel IV.Amsterdam: Elsevier, 14–18.
28.
de FerraF., EnghH., HudsonL., KamholzJ., PuckeltC., MolineauxS., LazzariniR.A. (1985). Alternative splicing accounts for the four forms of myelin basic protein.Cell43: 721–727.
29.
DiLellaA.G., HuangW-M., WooS.L.C. (1988). Screening for phenylketonuria mutations by DNA amplification with the polymerase chain reaction.Lancet:497–499.
30.
DoiY., EanesE.D., ShimokawaH., TermineJ.D. (1984). Inhibition of seeded growth of enamel apatite crystals by amelogenin and enamelin proteins in vitro.J Dent Res63: 98–105.
EastoeJ.E. (1965). The chemical composition of bone and tooth. In: Advances in Fluorine Research and Dental Caries Prevention. Vol 3. Oxford: Pergamon Press. 5–15.
33.
EllisN.A., GoodfellowP.J., PymB., SmithM., PalmerM., FrischaufA-M, GoodfellowP.N. (1989). The pseudoautosomal boundary in man is defined by an Alu repeat sequence inserted on the Y chromosome.Nature337: 81–84.
34.
EngelkeD.R., HoenerP.A., CollinsF.S. (1988). Direct sequencing of enzymatically amplified human genomic DNA.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA85: 544–548.
35.
FolgerK.R., WangE.A., WahlG., CapecehiM.R. (1982). Patterns of integration of DNA microinjected into cultured mammalian cells: evidence for homologous recombination between injected plasmid DNA molecules.Mol Cell Biol2: 1372–1387.
36.
FranckeU., OchsH.D., de MartinvilleB., GiacaloneJ., LindgrenV., DistecheC., PagonR.A., HofkerM.H., van OmmenG-J B., PearsonP.L., WedgwoodR.J. (1985). Minor Xp21 chromosome deletion in a male associated with expression of Duchenne muscular dystrophy, chronic granulomatous disease, retinitis pigmentosa, and McLeod syndrome.Am J Hum Genet37: 250–267.
37.
FrankR.M. (1970). Autoradiographic quantitative de l'amelogenese en microscopie electronique a l'aide de la proline tritiee chez le chat.Arch Oral Biol15: 569–581.
38.
FriedmanJ.S., CoferC.L., AndersonC.L., KushnerJ.A., GrayP.P., ChapmanG.E., StuartM.C., LazarusL., ShineJ., KushnerP.J. (1989). High expression in mammalian cells without amplification.Biotechnology7: 359–362.
39.
GibbsR.A., NguyenP-N, McBrideL.J., KoepfS.M., CaskeyC.T. (1989). Identification of mutations leading to the Lesch-Nyhan syndrome by automated direct DNA sequencing of in vitro amplified cDN A.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA86: 1919–1923.
40.
GitschierJ., DraynaD., TuddenhamE.G.D., WhiteR.L., LawnR.M. (1985). Genetic mapping and diagnosis of haemophilia A achieved through a Bel I polymorphism in the factor VIII gene.Nature314: 738–740.
41.
GoodfellowP.J., DarlingS.M., PymB., PritchardC., GoodfellowP.N. (1987). Homologies between the sex chromosomes of man. In: VogelF., SperlingK., eds. Human Genetics.Berlin: Springer-Verlag: 145–151.
42.
GrompeM., MuznyD.M., CaskeyC.T. (1989). Scanning detection of mutations in human ornithine transcarbamoylase by chemical mismatch cleavage.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA86: 5888–5892.
43.
HayashiY., BiancoP., ShimokawaH., TermineJ.D., BonucciE. (1986). Organic-inorganic relationships, and immunohistochemical localization of amelogenins and enamelins in developing enamel.Basic Appl Histochem30: 291–299.
44.
HejtmancikJ.F., WardP.A., MansfieldT., SifersR.N., HarrisS., CoxD.W. (1986). Prenatal diagnosis of alpha-1 -antitrypsin deficiency by restriction fragment length polymorphisms, and comparison with oligonucleotide probe analysis.Lancet: 767–769.
45.
IngramV.M. (1957). Gene mutations in human haemoglobin: the chemical difference between normal and sickel cell haemoglobin.Nature180: 326–328.
46.
InnisM.A., MyamboK.B., GelfandD.H., BrowM.A.D. (1988). DNA sequencing with Thermus aquaticus DNA polymerase and direct sequencing of polymerase chain reaction-amplified DNA.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA85: 9436–9440.
47.
JaenischR., JahnerD., NobisP., SimonI., LohlerJ., HarbersK., GrotkoppD. (1981). Chromosomal position and activation of retroviral genomes inserted into the germ line of mice.Cell24: 519–529.
48.
JenssonO., ArnasonA., GunnardottirH., PetursdottirI., FossdalR., HreidarssonS. (1988). A family showing apparent X-linked inheritance of anencephaly and spina bifida.J Med Genet25: 227–229.
49.
JodaikenA., TraubW., WeinerS. (1986). Protein conformation in rat tooth enamel.Arch Oral Biol31: 685–689.
50.
JohnsonR.S., ShengM., GreenbergM.E., KolodnerR.D., PapaioannouV.E., SpiegelmanB.M. (1989). Targeting of nonexpressed genes in embryonic stem cells via homologous recombination.Science245: 1234–1236.
51.
JoynerA.L., SlamesW.C., RossantJ. (1989). Production of a mutation in mouse En 2 gene by homologous recombination in embryonic stem cells.Nature338: 153–156.
52.
KallenbachE. (1971). Electron microscopy of the differentiating rat incisor ameloblast.J Ultrastruct Res35: 508–531.
53.
KatsukiM., SatoM., KimuraM., YokoyamaM., KobayashiK., NomuraT. (1988). Conversion of normal behavior to shiverer by myelin basic protein antisense cDNA in transgenic mice.Science241: 593–595.
54.
LagerstromM., DahlN., IseliusL., BackmanB., PetterssonU. (1989). Linkage analysis of X-linked amelogenesis imperfecta. Proceedings of the Human Gene Mapping, 10, New Haven, Abstract no. A2478.Cytogenet Cell Genet51: 1028.
55.
LandegrenU., KaiserR., CaskeyC.T., HoodL. (1988). DNA diagnostics — molecular techniques and automation.Science242: 229–237.
56.
LanderE.S., GreenP. (1987). Construction of multilocus genetic linkage maps in humans.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA84: 2363–2367.
57.
LathropG.M., LalouelJ.M., JulierC., OttJ. (1984). Strategies for multilocus linkage analysis in humans.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA81: 3443–3446.
58.
LauE.C., MohandasT.K., ShapiroL.J., SlavkinH.C., SneadM.L. (1989). Human and mouse amelogenin gene loci are on the sex chromosomes.Genomics4: 162–168.
59.
LevedakouE.N., LandegrenU., HoodL.E. (1989). A strategy to study gene polymorphism by direct sequence analysis of cosmid clones and amplified genomic DNA.BioTechniques7: 438–441.
60.
LidskyA.S., GuttlerF., WooS.L.C. (1985). Prenatal diagnosis of classic phenylketonuria by DNA analysis.Lancet549–551.
61.
LindlofM., KereJ., RistolaM., RepoH., Leirisalo-RepoM., von KoskullH., AmmalaP., de la ChapelleA. (1987). Prenatal diagnosis of X-linked chronic granulomatous disease using restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis.Genomics1: 87–92.
62.
LyonM.F. (1961). Gene action in the X-chromosome of the mouse (Mus musculus L).Nature190: 372–373.
63.
MaxsonR.E., ItoM., BalcellsS., ThayerM., EtkinL. (1988). Differential expression of sea urchin early and late histone genes in Xenopus oocytes in response to a trans-acting factor isolated from late-stage sea urchin embryos.Mol Cell Biol8: 1236–1246.
64.
McIntoshI., CurtisA., MillanF.A., BrockD.J.H. (1989). Prenatal exclusion testing for Huntington disease using the polymerase chain reaction.Am J Med Genet32: 274–276.
65.
McKusickV. (1986). Mendelian inheritance in man.Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
66.
McKusickV.A. (1987). Human gene map — morbid anatomy. In: O'BrienS.J., ed. Genetic maps, Vol 4. New York: Cold Spring Harbor Lab, 581–592.
67.
MelnickM., BurzynskiN.J., EscobarV.H. (1982). Oral dysmorphology and genetics. In: MelnickM., ShieldsE.D., BurzynskiN.J., eds. Clinical dysmorphology of oral-facial structures.Boston: John Wright, 447–473.
68.
MenanteauJ., MeflahK., StreckerG. (1988). The carbohydrate moiety of mineral-hound proteins from fetal enamel: a basis for enamelins heterogeneity.Calcif Tissue Int42: 196–200.
69.
MertzJ., GurdonJ.B. (1977). Purified DNAs are transcribed after microinjection into Xenopus oocytes.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA74: 1502–1506.
70.
MohandasT., HeinzmannC., SparkesR.S., WasmuthJ., EdwardsP., LusisA.J. (1986). Assignment of human 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase gene to ql3 Ä q23 region of chromosome 5.Somatic Cell Mol Genet12: 89–94.
71.
MondelloC., RopersH-H, CraigI.W., TolleyE., GoodfellowP.N. (1987). Physical mapping of genes and sequences at the end of the human X chromosome short arm.Ann Hum Genet51: 137–143.
72.
MooreG.E., IvensA., ChambersJ., FarallM., WilliamsonR., PageD.C., BjörnssonÅ, ÅrnasonA., JenssonO. (1987). Linkage of an X-chromosome cleft palate gene.Nature326: 91–92.
73.
MooreG.E., IvensA., NewtonR., BalacsM.A., HendersonD.J., JenssonO. (1990). X chromosome genes involved in the regulation of facial clefting and spina bifida.Cleft Palate J27: 131–135.
74.
MyersR.M., LarinZ., ManiatisT. (1985a). Detection of single base substitutions by ribonuclcase cleavage at mismatches in RNA: DNA duplexes.Science230: 1242–1246.
75.
MyersR.M., LumelskyN., LermanL.S., ManiatisT. (1985b). Detection of single base substitutions in total genomic DNA.Nature313: 495–498.
76.
MyersR.M., ManiatisT., LermanL.S. (1987). Detection and localization of single base changes by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. In: WuR., ed. Methods in enzymology, Vol 155. New York: Academic Press: 501–527.
77.
MyersR.M., SheffieldV.C., CoxD.R. (1988). Detection of single base changes in DNA: ribonuclease cleavage and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. In: DaviesK.E., ed. Chromosome Analysis.Oxford: IRL Press. 95–140.
78.
MyrianthopoulosN.C. (1982). Epidemiology of craniofacial malformations. In: MelnickM., ShieldsE.D., BurzynskiN.J., eds. Clinical dysmorphology of oral-facial structures.Boston: John Wright, 1–27.
79.
NanciA., BendayanM., SlavkinH.C. (1985). Enamel protein biosynthesis and secretion in mouse incisor secretory ameloblasts as revealed by high-resolution immunocytochemistry.J Histochem Cytochem33: 1153–1160.
80.
NanciA., SlavkinH.C., SmithC.E. (1987). Immunocytochemical and radioautographic evidence for secretion and intracellular degradation of enamel proteins by ameloblasts during the maturation stage of amelogenesis in rat incisors.Anat Rec217: 107–123.
81.
OgataY., ShimokawaH., SasakiS. (1988). Purification, characterization, and biosynthesis of bovine enamelins.Calcif Tissue Int43: 389–399.
82.
OttJ. (1985). Analysis of human genetic linkage.Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Univ Press.
83.
OttJ. (1986). A short guide to linkage analysis. In: DaviesK.E., eds. Human genetic diseases — a practical approach, Oxford: IRL Press. 19–32.
84.
OttJ., MensinkE.J.B.W., ThompsonA., SchotJ.D.L., SchuurmanR.K.B. (1986). Heterogeneity in the map distance between X linked agammaglobulinemia and a map of nine RFLP loci.Hum Genet74: 280–283.
85.
PalmiterR.D., BrinsterR.L., HammerR.E., TrumbauerM.E., RosenfeldM.G., BirnbergN.C., EvansR.M. (1982). Dramatic growth of mice that develop from eggs microinjected with metallothionein-growth hormone fusion genes.Nature300: 611–615.
PirastuM., RistaldiM.S., CaoA. (1989). Prenatal diagnosis of beta thalassaemia based on restriction endonuclease analysis of amplified fetal DNA.J Med Genet26: 363–367.
88.
RommensJ.M., IannuzziM.C., KeremB-S, DrummM.L., MelmerG., DeanM., RozmahelR., ColeJ.L., KennedyD., HidakaN., ZsigaM., BuchwaldM., RiozdanJ.R., TsuiL-C, ColinsF.S. (1989). Identification of the cystic fibrosis gene: chromosomal walking and jumping, Science245: 1059–1065.
89.
RozekC.E., DavidsonN. (1986). Differential processing of RNA transcribed from the single-copy Drosophila myosin heavy chain gene produces four mRNAs that encode two polypeptides.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA83: 2128–2132.
90.
SaikiR.K., GelfandD.H., StoffelS., ScharfS.J., HiguchiR., HornG.T., MullisK.B., ErlichH.A. (1988). Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase.Science239: 487–491.
91.
SaikiR.K., ScharfS., FaloonaF., MullisK.B., HornG.T., ErlichH.A., AmhetmN. (1985). Enzymatic amplification of beta-globin genomic sequences and restriction site analysis for diagnosis of sickle cell anemia.Science230: 1350–1354.
92.
SchwarzbauerJ.E., TamkunJ.W., Lemischka1R, HynesR.O. (1983). Three different fibronectin mRNAs arise by alternative splicing within the coding region.Cell35: 421–431.
93.
ShieldsE.D. (1983). A new classification of heritable human enamel defects and a discussion of dentin defects.In: Birth Defects.19(1): 107–127.
94.
SlavkinH.C., MinoP., BringasP. (1976). The biosynthesis and secretion of precursor enamel protein by ameloblasts as visualized by autoradiography after tryptophan administration.Anat Rec185: 289–312.
95.
SlavkinH.C., Zeichner-DavidM., MacDougallM., BessemC., BringasP., HonigL.S., LusskyJ., VidesJ. (1982). Enamel gene products during murine amelogenesis in vivo and in vitro.J Dent Res61: 1467–1470.
96.
SneadM.L., BringasP., BessemC., SlavkinH.C. (1984). De novo gene expression detected by amelogenin gene transcript analysis.Devel Biol104: 255–258.
97.
SneadM.L., LauE.C., FinchamA.G., Zeichner-DavidM., DavisC., SlavkinH.C. (1989). Of mice and men: anatomy of the amelogenin gene.Connect Tissue Res22: 101–109.
98.
SneadM.L., LauE.C., Zeichner-DavidM., FinchamA.G., WooS.L.C., SlavkinH.C. (1985). DNA sequence for cloned cDNA for murine amclogenin reveal the amino acid sequence for enamel specific protein.Biochem Biophys Res Commun129: 812–818.
99.
SneadM.L., LauE.C., Zeichner-DavidM., NanciA., BendayanM., BringasP., BessemC., SlavkinH.C. (1987). Relationship of the ameloblast biochemical phenotype to morpho- and cyto-differentiation. In: FirtelR.A., DavidsonE.H., eds. Molecular approaches to developmental biology.New York: Alan R. Liss, 641–652.
100.
SneadM.L., LauE.C. (1987). Examining the possible molecular origins for enamel protein complexity.Adv Dent Res1(2): 298–305.
101.
SneadM.L., LuoW., LauE.C., SlavkinH.C. (1988). Spatial- and temporal-restricted pattern for amelogenin gene expression during mouse molar tooth organogenesis.Development104: 77–85.
102.
SneadM.L., Zeichner-DavidM., ChandraT., RobsonK.J.H., WooS.L.C., SlavkinH.C. (1983). Construction and identification of mouse amelogenin cDNA clones.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA80: 7254–7258.
103.
SorianoP., ConeR.D., MulliganR.C., JaenischR. (1986). Tissue-specific and ectopic expression of genes introduced into transgenic mice by retroviruses.Science234: 1409–1413.
104.
SouthernE.M. (1975). Detection of specific sequences among DNA fragments separated by gel electrophoresis.J Mol Biol98: 812–818.
105.
SundellS., KochG. (1985). Hereditary amelogenesis imperfecta. I. Epidemiology and clinical classification in a Swedish child population.Swed Dent J9: 157–169.
106.
SundellS., ValentinJ. (1986). Hereditary aspects and classification of hereditary amelogenesis imperfecta.Community Dent Oral Epidemiol14: 211–216.
107.
SunoharaN., SakuragawaN., SatoyoshiE., TanaeA., ShapiroL.J. (1986). A new syndrome of anosmia, ichthyosis, hypogonadism, and various neurological manifestations with deficiency of steroid sulfatase and arylsulfatase C.Ann Neurol19: 174–181.
108.
TermineJ.D., BelcourtA.B., ChristnerP.J., ConnK.M., NylenM.U. (1980). Properties of dissociatively extracted fetal tooth matrix proteins. I. Principal molecular species in developing bovine enamel.J Biol Chem255: 9760–9768.
109.
ThompsonS., ClarkeA.R., PowA.M., HooperM.L., MeltonD.W. (1989). Germ line transmission and expression of a corrected HPRT gene produced by gene targeting in embryonic stem cells.Cell56: 313–321.
110.
Van der KrolA.R., MolJ.N.M., StuitjeA.R. (1988). Modulation of eukaryotic gene expression by complementary RNA or DNA sequences.BioTechniques6: 958–975.
111.
Van der PuttenH., BotteriF.M., MillerA.D., RosenfeldM.G., FanH., EvansR.M., VermaI.M. (1985). Efficient insertion of genes into the mouse germ line via retroviral vectors.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA82: 6148–6152.
112.
VassarR., RosenbergM., RossS., TynerA., FuchsE. (1989). Tissue-specific and differentiation-specific expression of a human K 14 keratin gene in transgenic mice.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA86: 1563–1567.
113.
WarshawskyH. (1979). Radioautographic studies on amelogenesis.J Biol Buccale7: 105–126.
114.
WatsonJ.D., CrickF.H.C. (1953). A structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid.Nature171: 737–738.
115.
WeinstockA., LeblondC.P. (1971). Elaboration of the matrix glycoprotein of enamel by the secretory ameloblasts of the rat incisor as revealed by radioautography after galactose-3H injection.J Cell Biol51: 26–51.
116.
WiglerM., SweetR., SimG.K., WoldB., PelliccrA., LacyE., ManiatisT., SilversteinS., AxelR. (1979). Transformation of mammalian cells with genes from prokaryotes and eukaryotes.Cell16: 777–785.
117.
WinterE., YamamotoF., AlmogueraC., PeruchoM. (1985). A method to detect and characterize point mutations in transcribed genes: amplification and overexpression of the mutant c-ki-ras allele in human tumor cells.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA82: 7575–7579.
118.
WinterG.B., BrookA.H. (1975). Enamel hypoplasia and anomalies of the enamel.Dent Clin N Am19(1): 3–24.
119.
WitkopC.J. (1957). Hereditary defects in enamel and dentin.Acta Genet Stat Med7: 236–239.
120.
WitkopC.J. (1967). Partial expression of sex-linked recessive amelogenesis imperfecta in females compatible with the Lyon hypothesis.Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol23: 174–182.
121.
WitkopC.J. (1989). Amelogenesis imperfecta, dentinogenesis imperfecta and dentin dysplasia revisited: problems in classification.J Oral Pathol17: 547–553.
WolgemuthD.J., BehringerR.R., MostollerM.P., BrinsterR.L., PalmiterR.D. (1989). Transgenic mice overexpressing the mouse homoeobox-containing gene Hox-1.4 exhibit abnormal gut development.Nature337: 464–467.
124.
WooS.L.C., KiddV.J., PamZ-K, WallaceB., ItakuraK. (1983a). Alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency and pulmonary emphysema: identification of recessive homozygotes by direct analysis of the mutation site in the chromosomal gene. In: CaskeyC.T., WhiteR.L. eds., Banbury report 14, New York: Cold Spring Harbor Lab: 105–112.
125.
WooS.L.C., LidskyA.S., GuttlerF., ChandraT., RobsonK.J.H. (1983b). Cloned human phenylalanine hydroxylase gene allows prenatal diagnosis and carrier detection of classical phenylketonuria.Nature306: 151–155.
126.
WrightJ.T. (1985). Analysis of a kindred with amelogenesis imperfecta.J Oral Pathol14: 366–374.
127.
ZimmerA., GrussP. (1989). Production of chimaeric mice containing embryonic stem (ES) cells carrying a homoeobox Hox 1.1 allele mutated by homologous recombination.Nature338: 150–153.
