North American pit vipers

Russell F.E. Snake Venom Poisoning . Great Neck, NY: Scholium International, 1983

Klauber L.M. Rattlesnakes: Their Habits. in: Life Histories, and Influence on Mankind. 2nd vols . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982

Rosenfeld G. Symptomatology, pathology and treatment of snake bites in South America. In: Bucherl W. Buckley E.E. eds. Venomous Animals and Their Venoms , Vol.2. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1971

Brown J.H. Toxicology and Pharmacology of Venoms from Poisonous Snakes . Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1973

Gennaro J.F. Leopold R.S. Merriam T.W. Observations on the actual quantity of venom introduced by several species of crotalid snakes in their bite. Anat Rec 1961; 139, 303

Hardy D.C. Fatal rattlesnake envenomation in Arizona. J. Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1986; 24, 1

Russell F.E. Carlson R.W. Wainschel J. et al. Snake venom poisoning in the United States: experiences with 550 cases. JAMA 1975; 233, 341–344

Minton S.A. Observations on toxicity and antigenic make-up of venoms from juvenile snakes. In: Russell F.E. Saunders D.R. eds. Animal Toxins , Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1967, 211

Fiero M.K. Seifert M.W. et al. Comparative study of juvenile and adult prairie rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis viridis) venoms. Toxicon 1972; 10, 81

Minton S.A. Short communication: a note on the venom of an aged rattlesnake. Toxicon 1975; 13, 73

Reid H.A. Theakston R.D.G. Changes in coagulation effects by venoms of Crotalus atrox as snakes age. Am J Trop Med 1978; 27, 1053

Kochva E. Oral glands of the repitilia. In: Gans C. Parson T. eds. Biology of the Reptilia , Vol.8. London: Academic Press, 1978, 43–161

Russell F.E. Consecutive bites on three persons by a single rattlesnake. Toxicon 1978; 16, 79

Parrish H.M. Incidence of treated snakebites in the United States. Public Health Rep 1966; 81, 269–276

Sprenger T.R. Bailey W.J. Snakebite treatment in United States. Int J Dermatol 1986; 25, 479–484

Davidson T.M. Intravenous rattlesnake envenomation. West J Med 1988; 148, 45

Wingert W.A. Chan L. Rattlesnake bites in Southern California and rationale for recommended treatment. West J Med 1988; 148, 37

Russell F.E. Pharmacology of animal venoms. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1967; 8, 849

Tu A. Venoms: Chemistry and Molecular Biology . New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1977

Wagner F.W. Prescott J.M. A comparative study of proteolytic activities in the venoms of some North American snakes. Comp Biochem Physiol 1966; 17, 191

Deutsch H.F. Diniz C.R. Some proteolytic activities of snake venoms. J Biol Chem 1955; 216, 17

Rocha e Silva M. Beraldo W.T. Rosenfeld G. Bradykinin, a hypotensive and smooth muscle stimulating factor released from plasma globulin by snake venoms and by trypsin. Am J Physiol 1949; 156, 261

Favilli G. Occurrence of spreading factors and some properties of hyalaronidases in animal parasites and venoms. In: Buckley E. Porges N. eds. Venoms , Washington, D. C: AAAS, 1956, 281

Rosenberg P. Pharmacology of phospholipase A₂ from snake venoms. In: Lee C.Y. ed. Snake Venoms. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology 52 , Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1979, 403–447

Breithaupt H. Enzymatic characteristics of Crotalus phospholipase A₂ and the crotoxin complex. Toxicon 1976; 14, 221

Russell F.E. Strassberg J. Buess F.W. Zootoxicological properties of venom phospho- diesterase. Fed Proc 1962; 21, 242

McLennan B.D. Lane B.G. The chain termini of polynucleotides formed by limited enzymatic fragmentation of wheat embryo ribosomal RNA. II. Studies of a snake venom ribonuclease and pancreas ribonuclease. Can J Biochem 1968; 46, 93

Laskowski J. Sr Hagerty G. Laurila V. Phosphodiesterase from rattlesnake venom. Nature 1957; 180, 1181

Diniz C.R. Bradykinin formation by snake venoms. In: Bucherl W. Buckley E. Dudofer V. eds. Venomous Animals and Their Venoms , Vol.1. New York: Academic Press, 1978, 217

Russell F.E. Buess F.W. Woo M.Y. Eventov R. Zootoxicological properties of venom L-amino acid oxidase. Toxicon 1963; 1, 229

Goncalves J.M. Purification and properties of crotamine. In: Buckley E. Porges N. eds. Venoms , Washington, DC: AAAS, 1956, 261

Schaeffer R.C. Jr Pattabhiraman T.R. Carlson R.W. Russell F.E. Weil M.H. Cardiovascular failure produced by a peptide from the venom of the Southern Pacific Rattlesnake. Crotalus viridis helleri. Toxicon 1979; 17, 447

Michaelis B.A. Russell F.E. Effects of Crotalus venom on integrity of capillary wall. Toxicon 1963; 1, 245

Denson K.W.E. Russell F.E. Alveagro D. Bishop R.L. Characterization of the coagulant activity of some snake venoms. Toxicon 1972; 10, 557

Markland F.S. Pirkle H. Thrombin-like enzyme from the venom of Crotalus adamanteus (eastern diamondback rattlesnake). Thrombosis Res 1977; 10, 487

Weiss H.J. Allan S. Esmond D. Kochva S. A fibrogenemia in man following the bite of a rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus). Am J Med 1960; 47, 625

Hasiba V. Rosenbach L.M. Rockwell D. Lewis J.H. DIC-like syndrome after envenomation by the snake Crotalus horridus. N Engl J Med 1975; 292, 505

Pizzo S.W. Schwartz M.L. Hill R.L. McKee P.A. Mechanism of ancrod coagulation. A direct proteolytic effect on fibrin. J Clin Invest 1972; 51, 2841

Bajwa S.S. Markland F.S. Russell F.E. Isolation and characterization of a fibrinolytic enzyme from the western diamondback rattlesnake. Fed Proc 1979; 38 3041 (abst.)

Rosenfield G. Nahas L. Kelen E.M.A. Coagulant, proteolytic and hemolytic properties of some snake venoms. In: Bucherl W. Buckley E. Dudofer V. eds. Venomous Animals and their venoms , Vol.1. New York: Academic Press, 1978, 229

Witham A.C. Remington J.W. Lombard E.A. Cardiovascular response to rattlesnake venom. Amer J. Physiol 1953; 173, 535

Russell F.E. Buess F.W. Strassberg J. Cardiovascular response to Crotalus venom. Toxicon 1962; 1, 5

Halmagyi D.F.J. Starzecki B. Horner G.F. Mechanism and pharmacology of shock due to rattlesnake venom in sheep. J Appl Physiol 1965; 20, 709

Bonta I.L. Vargaftig B.B. Bhargava N. DeVos C.J. Method for study of snake venom induced hemorrhages. Toxicon 1970; 8, 3

Gennaro J.F. Jr Ramsey H.W. Distribution in the mouse of lethal and sublethal doses of cottonmouth moccasin venom labelled with Iodine-131. Nature 1959; 184, 1244

Castilonia R. Pattabhiraman T.R. Russell F.E. Gonzalez H. Electro-physiological studies on a protein fraction (K’) from Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus) venom. Toxicon 1981; 19, 473

Russell F.E. Snake venom immunology: historical and practical considerations. J Toxicol-Toxin Rev 1988; 7, 1

Criley B.R. Development of multivalent antivenin for the family Crotalidae. In: Buckley E. Porges N. eds. Venoms , Washington, DC: AAAS, 1956, 373

Sutherland S.K. Coutler A.R. Harris R.D. Rationalization of first aid measures for elapid snakebite. Lancet 1979; 1, 183

Sullivan J.B. Past, present and future immunotherapy of snake venom poisoning. Ann Emerg Med 1987; 16, 938–944

Hasiba U. Rosenbach L.M. Rockwell D. et al. DIC-like syndrome after envenomation by the snake. Crotalus horridus. N Engl J Med 1975; 292, 505

Riffer E. Curry S.C. Gerkin R. Successful treatment with antivenin of marked thrombocytopenia without significant coagulopathy following rattlesnake bite. Ann Emerg Med 1987; 16, 1297

Hardy D.C. Jeter J. Corrigan J.L. Envenomation by the northern blacktail rattlesnake (Crotalus molossus): report of two cases and the in vitro effects of the venom on fibrinolysis and platelet aggregation. Toxicon 1982; 20, 487

Dart R.C. Goldner A.P. Lindsey D. Efficacy of delayed administration of crotalid antivenin and crystalloid fluids. Toxicon 1988; 26, 1218

Russell F.E. Ruzic N. Gonzales H. Effectiveness of antivenin (Crotalidae) polyvalent following injection of crotalus venom. Toxicon 1973; 11, 461

Hutchinson R.H. On the incidence of snake bite poisoning in the United States and the results of the newer methods of treatment. Bull Antivenin Inst Amer 1929; 3, 43

Jurkovich G.J. Luterman A. et al. Complications of crotalidae antivenin therapy. J Traum 1988; 28, 1032

Spaite D. Dart R. Sullivan J.B. Skin testing in cases of possible crotalid envenomation. Ann Emerg Med 1988; 17, 105

Otten E. McKinim D. Venomous snakebite in a patient allergic to horse serum. Ann Emerg Med 1988; 12, 624

Griffen D. Donovan J. Significant envenomation from a preserved rattlesnake head (in a patient with a history of immediate hypersensitivity to antivenin). Ann Emerg Med 1986; 15, 955

Theakston R.D.G. Snake venoms in science and clinical medicine. 2. Applied immunology in snake venom research. Trans Royal Soc Trop Med Hyg 1989; 83, 741

Clement J.F. Pietrusko R.G. Pit viper snakebites in the United States. J. Fam Pract 1978; 6, 269

Burgess J.L. Dart R.C. Mayersohn M. Effect of constriction bands on rattlesnake venom absorption: a pharmacokinetic study. Ann Emerg Med 1991; 20, 459

Bronstein A.C. Russell F.E. Sullivan J.B Negative pressure suction in field treatment of rattlesnake bite. Vet Hum Toxicol 1985; 25, 297

Clark R.W. Cryotherapy and corticosteroids in the treatment of rattlesnake bite. Milit Med 1971; 136, 42

Stewart R.M. Carey P.O. et al. Antivenin and fasciotomy/debridement in the treatment of the severe rattlesnake bite. Am J Surg 1989; 158, 543

Johnson E.K. Kardong K.U. Mackessy S.P. Electric shocks are ineffective in treatment of lethal effects of rattlesnake envenomation in mice. Toxicon 1987; 25, 1347

Bucknall N.C. Electrical treatment of venomous bites and stings. Toxicon 1991; 29, 397–400

Christopher D.G. Rodning C.B. Crotalidae envenomation. South Med J 1986; 79, 159

American Association of Poison Control Centers and the Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center Snake Venom Poisoning 1984 August

Bielory L. Clinical complications of heterologus antisera administration. J Wild Med 1991; 2, 127–139