This research attempts to uncover when the black-white test score gap begins and why it exists by examining a nationally representative sample of infants using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Birth Cohort. The findings demonstrate that there is a small raw gap in cognitive skills between the infants of white and black mothers in the United States. However, through structural equation modeling, results show that when one controls for social, human, and financial capital and for differences in health and type of child care, the infants of African American mothers would score higher than the infants of white mothers because of their precocious motor development. Social capital and low birth weight are found to be key mediators of the small black-white test score gap in infancy.
AlexanderKarl L.EntwisleDoris R.HorseyCarrie S., 1997. “From First Grade Forward: Early Foundations of High School Dropout”. Sociology of Education70(2): 87–107.
2.
BeckerGary S.1964. Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research.
3.
BlackMaureen M.MatulaKathleen. 2000. Essentials of Bayley Scales of Infant Development—II Assessment. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
4.
BlakeJudith. 1985. “Number of Siblings and Educational Mobility”. American Sociological Review50(1): 84–94.
5.
BlauDavid M.1999a. “The Effect of Child Care Characteristics on Child Development”. The Journal of Human Resources34(4): 786–822.
6.
BlauDavid M.1999b. “The Effect of Income on Child Development”. The Review of Economics and Statistics81(2): 261–76.
7.
BollenKenneth A.1989. Structural Equations with Latent Variables. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
8.
BowlesSamuelGintisHerbertOsborneMelissa. 2001. “The Determinants of Earnings: A Behavioral Approach”. Journal of Economic Literature39(4): 1137–76.
9.
Brooks-GunnJeanneDuncanGreg J.MaritatoNancy. 1997. “Poor Families, Poor Outcomes: The Well-Being of Children and Youth”. Pp. 1–17 in Consequences of Growing up Poor, edited by DuncanG. J.Brooks-GunnJ., New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
10.
Brooks-GunnJeanneKlebanovPamela K.DuncanGreg J., 1996. “Ethnic Differences in Children's Intelligence Test Scores: Role of Economic Deprivation, Home Environment, and Maternal Characteristics”. Child Development67(2): 396–408.
11.
Brooks-GunnJeanneMarkmanLisa B., 2005. “The Contribution of Parenting to Ethnic and Racial Gaps in School Readiness”. The Future of Children15(1): 139–68.
12.
CapizzanoJeffreyAdamsGina. 2003. “Children in Low-Income Families Are Less Likely to Be in Center-Based Child Care”. Snapshots of America's Families, No. 16. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
13.
ChubbJohn E.LovelessTom. 2002. “Bridging the Achievement Gap”. Pp. 1–10 in Bridging the Achievement Gap, edited by ChubbJ. E.LovelessT., Washington, DC: The Brookings Institute.
14.
ClearfieldMelissa W.2004. “The Role of Crawling and Walking Experience in Infant Spatial Memory”. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology89(3): 214–41.
15.
ColemanJames S.1966. Equality of Educational Opportunity. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
16.
ColemanJames S.1988. “Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital”. American Journal of Sociology94: S95–S120.
17.
Combs-OrmeTerriWilsonElizabeth E.CainDaphne S.PageTimothyKirbyLaura D.2003. “Context-Based Parenting in Infancy: Background and Conceptual Issues”. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal20(6): 437–72.
18.
CongerRand D.WallaceLora EbertSunYumeiSimonsRonald L.McLoydVonnie C.BrodyGene H.2002. “Economic Pressure in African American Families: A Replication and Extension of the Family Stress Model”. Developmental Psychology38(2): 179–93.
19.
DaltonConleyGlauberRebecca. 2006. “Parental Educational Investment and Children's Academic Risk: Estimates of the Impact of Sibship Size and Birth Order from Exogenous Variation in Fertility”. Journal of Human Resources41(4): 722–37.
20.
CrockenbergSusan. 1983. “Early Mother and Infant Antecedents of Bayley Scale Performance at 21 Months”. Developmental Psychology19(5): 727–30.
21.
CroweTerry K.DeitzJean C.BennettForrest C., 1987. “The Relationship between the Bayley Scales of Infant Development and Preschool Gross Motor and Cognitive Performance”. American Journal of Occupational Therapy41(6): 374–78.
22.
CrutchfieldRobert D.PitchfordSusan R., 1997. “Work and Crime: The Effects of Labor Stratification”. Social Forces76(1): 93–118.
23.
CurrieJanet. 2005. “Health Disparities and Gaps in School Readiness”. The Future of Children15(1): 117–38.
24.
DezoeteJ. AnneMacArthurBarton A.TuckBryan F., 2003. “Prediction of Bayley and Stanford-Binet Scores with a Group of Very Low Birth Weight Children”. Child: Care, Health and Development29(5): 367–72.
25.
DowneyDouglas B.1995. “When Bigger Is Not Better: Family Size, Parental Resources, and Children's Educational Performance”. American Sociological Review60(5): 746–61.
26.
DowneyDouglas B.von HippelPaul T.BrohBeckett A., 2004. “Are Schools the Great Equalizer? Cognitive Inequality during the Summer Months and the School Year”. American Sociological Review69(5): 613–35.
27.
DuncanGreg J.MagnusonKatherine A., 2005. “Can Family Socioeconomic Resources Account for Racial and Ethnic Test Score Gaps?”The Future of Children15(1): 35–54.
28.
FarkasGeorge. 2003. “Cognitive Skills and Noncognitive Traits and Behaviors in Stratification Processes”. Annual Review of Sociology29: 541–62.
29.
FarkasGeorge. 2004. “The Black-White Test Score Gap”. Contexts3(2): 12–19.
30.
FarkasGeorgeEnglandPaulaVicknairKevenKilbourneBarbara Stanek. 1997. “Cognitive Skill, Skill Demands of Jobs, and Earnings among Young European American, African American, and Mexican American Workers”. Social Forces75(3): 913–40.
31.
FergusonRonald F.1998a. “Can Schools Narrow the Black-White Test Score Gap?” Pp. 318–74 in The Black-White Test Score Gap, edited by JencksC.PhillipsM., Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution.
32.
FergusonRonald F.1998b. “Teachers' Perceptions and Expectations and the Black-White Test Score Gap”. Pp. 273–317 in The Black-White Test Score Gap, edited by JencksC.PhillipsM., Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution.
33.
FreedmanDaniel G.DeBoerMarilyn M., 1979. “Biological and Cultural Differences in Early Child Development”. Annual Review of Anthropology8: 579–600.
34.
FryerRoland G.Jr.LevittSteven D., 2004. “Understanding the Black-White Test Score Gap in the First Two Years of School”. The Review of Economics and Statistics86(2): 447–64.
35.
FryerRoland G.Jr.LevittSteven D., 2006. “The Black-White Test Score Gap through Third Grade”. American Law and Economics Review8(2): 249–81.
36.
GabbardCarl P.2008. Lifelong Motor Development, 5th edition. San Francisco: Pearson Education.
37.
GuoGuang. 1998. “The Timing of the Influences of Cumulative Poverty on Children's Cognitive Ability and Achievement”. Social Forces77(1): 257–87.
38.
GuoGuangHarrisKathleen Mullan. 2000. “The Mechanisms Mediating the Effects of Poverty on Children's Intellectual Development”. Demography37(4): 431–47.
39.
GuoGuangVanWeyLeah K.1999. “Sibship Size and Intellectual Development: Is the Relationship Causal?”American Sociological Review64(2): 169–87.
40.
HackMaureenTaylorH. GerryDrotarDennisSchluchterMarkCartarLydiaWilson-CostelloDeanneKleinNancyFriedmanHarrietMercuri-MinichNoriMorrowMary. 2005. “Poor Predictive Validity of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development for Cognitive Function of Extremely Low Birth Weight Children at School Age”. Pediatrics116(2): 333–41.
41.
HanWen-Jui. 2005. “Maternal Nonstandard Work Schedules and Child Cognitive Outcomes”. Child Development76(1): 137–54.
42.
HanWen-JuiWaldfogelJaneBrooks-GunnJeanne. 2001. “The Effects of Early Maternal Employment on Later Cognitive and Behavioral Outcomes”. Journal of Marriage and the Family63(2): 336–54.
43.
HartBettyRisleyTodd R.1995. Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing, Co.
44.
HofferthSandra L.1984. “Kin Networks, Race, and Family Structure”. Journal of Marriage and the Family46(4): 791–806.
45.
HuntLarry L.HuntMatthew O., 2001. “Race, Region, and Religious Involvement: A Comparative Study of Whites and African Americans”. Social Forces80(2): 605–31.
46.
JencksChristopherPhillipsMeredith. 1998. “The Black-White Test Score Gap: An Introduction”. Pp. 1–51 in The Black-White Test Score Gap, edited by JencksC.PhillipsM., Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution.
47.
JenningsKay DonahueStaggVaughanConnorsRobin E., 1991. “Social Networks and Mothers' Interactions with their Preschool Children”. Child Development62(5): 966–78.
48.
KerckhoffAlan C.RaudenbushStephen W.GlennieElizabeth. 2001. “Education, Cognitive Skill, and Labor Force Outcomes”. Sociology of Education74(1): 1–24.
49.
KilbridePhilip L.KilbrideJanet E., 1974. “Sociocultural Factors and the Early Manifestation of Sociability Behavior among Baganda Infants”. Ethos2(3): 296–314.
50.
KilbrideJanet E.RobbinsMichael C.KilbridePhilip L., 1970. “The Comparative Motor Development of Baganda, American White, and American Black Infants”. American Anthropologist72(6): 1422–28.
51.
LeeValerie E.BurkamDavid T., 2002. Inequality at the Starting Gate: Social Background Differences in Achievement as Children Begin School. Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute.
52.
LewisMichaelMcGurkHarry. 1972. “Evaluation of Infant Intelligence: Infant Intelligence Scores—True or False?”Science178: 1174–77.
53.
LinNan2001a. “Building a Network Theory of Social Capital”. Pp. 3–30 in Social Capital: Theory and Research, edited by LinN.CookK.BurtR. S., Piscataway NJ: Aldine Transaction.
54.
LewisMichaelMcGurkHarry. 2001b. Social Capital: A Theory of Social Structure and Action. New York: Cambridge University Press.
55.
MagnusonKatherine A.WaldfogelJane. 2005. “Early Childhood Care and Education: Effects on Ethnic and Racial Gaps in School Readiness”. Future of Children15(1): 169–96.
MayerSusan E.1997. What Money Can't Buy: Family Income and Children's Life Chances. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
58.
McLanahanSara S.1997. “Parent Absence or Poverty: Which Matters More?” Pp. 35–48 in Consequences of Growing Up Poor, edited by DuncanG. J.Brooks-GunnJ., New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
59.
McLoydVonnie. 1990. “The Impact of Economic Hardship on Black Families and Children: Psychological Distress, Parenting, and Socioemotional Development”. Child Development61(2): 311–46.
60.
MuthénLinda K.MuthénBengt O., 1998–2005. Mplus User's Guide, 3rd edition. Los Angeles: Muthén and Muthén.
61.
NordChristineEdwardsBradHilpertRichardBrandenLauraAndreassenCarolElmoreAnneSesayDesreneFletcherPhilipGreenJimSaundersRayDulaneyRickReaneyLizabethFlanaganKristin DentonWestJerry. 2005. User's Manual for the ECLS-B Nine-Month Public-Use Data File and Electronic Code Book, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) 2005–013. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences.
62.
OliverMelvin L.ShapiroThomas M., 1997. Black Wealth/White Wealth: A New Perspective on Racial Inequality. New York: Routledge.
63.
ParksPeggy L.SmeriglioVincent L., 1986. “Relationships among Parenting Knowledge, Quality of Stimulation in the Home and Infant Development”. Family Relations35(3): 411–16.
64.
PetersMarie F.1981. “Parenting in Black Families with Young Children: A Historical Perspective”. Pp. 211–24 in Black Families, edited by McAdooH. P., Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
65.
PhillipsMeredithBrooks-GunnJeanneDuncanGreg J.KlebanovPamelaCraneJonathan. 1998. “Family Background, Parenting Practices, and the Black-White Test Score Gap”. Pp. 103–45 in The Black-White Test Score Gap, edited by JencksC.PhillipsM., Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution.
66.
PhillipsMeredithCrouseJamesRalphJohn. 1998. “Does the Black-White Test Score Gap Widen after Children Enter School?” Pp. 229–72 in The Black-White Test Score Gap, edited by JencksC.PhillipsM., Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution.
67.
PiagetJean. 1952. The Origins of Intelligence in Children, translated by CookMargaret. New York: International Universities Press, Inc.
68.
PiagetJeanInhelderBarbel. 1969. The Psychology of the Child, translated by WeaverHelen. New York: Basic Books, Inc.
69.
PortesAlejandro. 1998. “Social Capital: Its Origins and Applications in Modern Sociology”. Annual Review of Sociology24: 1–24.
70.
PutnamRobert D.2000. Bowling Alone. New York: Touchstone.
71.
ReichmanNancy E.2005. “Low Birth Weight and School Readiness”. The Future of Children15(1): 91–116.
72.
RosenbaumDavid A.2005. “The Cinderella of Psychology: The Neglect of Motor Control in the Science of Mental Life and Behavior”. American Psychologist60(4): 308–17.
73.
RosenbaumDavid A.CarlsonRichard A.GilmoreRick O., 2001. “Acquisition of Intellectual and Perceptual-Motor Skills”. Annual Review of Psychology52: 453–70.
74.
RossCatherine E.WuChia-Ling. 1995. “The Links between Education and Health”. American Sociological Review60(5): 719–45.
75.
ShonkoffJack P.PhillipsDeborah A. (Eds.), National Research Council and Medicine Institute of. 2000. From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Child Development. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
76.
SmithJudith R.Brooks-GunnJeanneKlebanovPamela K., 1997. “Consequences of Living in Poverty for Young Children's Cognitive and Verbal Ability and Early School Achievement”. Pp. 132–89 in Consequences of Growing Up Poor, edited by DuncanG. J.Brooks-GunnJ., New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
77.
StackCarol B.1974. All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community. New York: Harper and Row.
78.
StevensJoseph H.Jr.1984. “Child Development Knowledge and Parenting Skills”. Family Relations33(2): 237–44.
79.
ThelanEsther. 2000. “Motor Development as Foundation and Future of Developmental Psychology”. International Journal of Behavioral Development24(4): 385–97.
80.
TiggesLeann M.BrowneIreneGreenGary P., 1998. “Social Isolation of the Urban Poor: Race, Class, and Neighborhood Effects on Social Resources”. The Sociological Quarterly39(1)53–77.
81.
U.S. Department of the Census. 2000. “Table DP-3. Profile of Selected Economic Characteristics: 2000”. Retrieved April 11, 2008 from http://factfinder.census.gov.
82.
WaldfogelJaneHanWen-JuiBrooks-GunnJeanne. 2002. “The Effects of Early Maternal Employment on Child Cognitive Development”. Demography39(2): 369–92.
