Using National Population Health Survey data and the stress process model, this study investigates the relationship between food insufficiency and the risk of depression among Canadian adults. The study presents three principal findings. First, after controlling for conventional socioeconomic and socio-demographic variables, food insufficiency increases the risk of depression and actually predicts this risk better than measures of low income, main source of income, and education. Second, the negative effect of food insufficiency is not attributable to social resources disparities, even though these resources significantly reduce the size of the effect. Third, the effects of food insufficiency on depression are generally stronger for women than for men, but the results also indicate that single fathers from food insufficient households face more depression than other groups, including single mothers.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AdlerNancy E.BoyceThomasChesneyMargaret A.CohenSheldonFolkmanSusanKahnRobert L.SymeS. Leonard. 1994. “Socioeconomic Status and Health: The Challenge of the Gradient.”American Psychologist49:15–24.
2.
AliAlishaTonerBrenda B., 1996. “Gender Differences in Depressive Response: The Role of Social Support.”Sex Roles35:281–93.
3.
AndersonSue Ann, ed. 1990. “Core Indicators of Nutritional Status for Difficult-to-Sample Populations.”Journal of Nutrition120:1559–99.
4.
AneshenselCarol S.1992. “Social Stress: Theory and Research.”Annual Review of Sociology18:15–38.
5.
BanduraAlan. 1992. “Self-Efficacy Mechanisms in Physiological Activation and Health Promoting Behavior.” Pp. 229–69 in Adaptation, Learning, and Affect, edited by MaddemJ.MatthysseS.BarchasJ., New York: Raven Press.
6.
BoardmanJason D.FinchBrian K.EllisonChristopher G.WilliamsDavid R.JacksonJames S., 2001. “Neighborhood Disadvantage, Stress, and Drug Use among Adults.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior42:151–65.
7.
BolenEdHechtKenneth. 2003. Neighborhood Groceries: New Access to Health Food in Low-Income Communities. San Francisco: California Food Policy Advocates.
8.
CarlsonSteven J.AndrewsMargaret S.BickelGary W., 1999. “Measuring Food Insecurity and Hunger in the United States: Development of a National Benchmark Measure and Prevalence Estimates.”Journal of Nutrition129:510S–16S.
9.
CheJanetChenJiajian. 2001. “Food Insecurity in Canadian Households.”Health Reports12:11–21.
DivertyBrentBeaudetMarie P., 1997. “Depression: An Undertreated Disorder?”Health Reports8:9–18.
12.
DixonLori B.WinklebyMarilyn A.RadimerKathy L., 2001. “Dietary Intakes and Serum: Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994.”Journal of Nutrition131:1232–46.
13.
FitchenJanet M.1988. “Hunger, Malnutrition, and Poverty in the Contemporary United States: Some Observations on Their Social and Cultural Context.”Food and Foodways2:309–33.
14.
FredmanLisaWeissmanMyrna M.LeafPhilipBruceMartha L., 1988. “Social Functioning in Community Residents with Depression and Other Psychiatric Disorders: Results of the New Haven Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study.”Journal of Affective Disorders15:103–12.
15.
GeorgeLinda K.LynchScott M., 2003. “Race Differences in Depressive Symptoms: A Dynamic Perspective on Stress Exposure and Vulnerability.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior44:353–69.
16.
GriffinJoan M.FuhrerRebeccaStansfeldStephen A.MarmotMichael. 2002. “The Importance of Low Control at Work and Home on Depression and Anxiety: Do These Effects Vary by Gender and Social Class?”Social Science and Medicine54:783–98.
17.
GrzywaczJoseph G.AlmeidaDavid M.NeupertShevaun D.EttnerSusan L., 2004. “Socioeconomic Status and Health: A Micro-level Analysis of Exposure and Vulnerability to Daily Stressors.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior45:1–16.
18.
HamelinAnne-MarieBeaudryMichelineHabichtJean-Pierre. 2002. “Characterization of Food Insecurity in Québec: Food and Feelings.”Social Science and Medicine54:119–32.
19.
HamelinAnne-MarieHabichtJean-PierreBeaudryMicheline. 1999. “Food Insecurity: Consequences for the Household and Broader Social Implications.”Journal of Nutrition129:525S–28S.
20.
HirschfeldRobertMontgomeryStuartKellerMartinKasperSiegfriedSchatzbergAlanMollerHans-JürgenHealyDavidBaldwinDavidHumbleMatsVersianiMarcioMontenegroRogerBourgeoisMarc. 2000. “Social Functioning in Depression: A Review.”Journal of Clinical Psychiatry61:268–75.
21.
HouseJames S.1981. Work Stress and Social Support. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
22.
JamesW. PhilipNelsonMichaelRalphAnnLeatherSuzi. 1997. “The Contribution of Nutrition to Inequalities in Health.”British Medical Journal3:1545–49.
23.
LangTim. 1997. “Dividing Up the Cake: Food as Social Exclusion.” Pp. 213–23 in Britain Divided: The Growth of Social Exclusion in the 1980s and 1990s, edited by WalkerA.WalkerC., London: CPAG.
24.
McCullaghPeterNelderJohn A., 1989. Generalized Linear Models. 2nd ed.London: Chapman and Hall.
25.
MirowskyJohnRossCatherine E., 1992. “Age and Depression.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior33:187–205.
26.
MirowskyJohnRossCatherine E., 1995. “Sex Differences in Distress: Real or Artifact?”American Sociological Review60:449–68.
27.
MurrayChristopherLopezAlan, eds. 1996. The Global Burden of Disease: A Comprehensive Assessment of Mortality and Disability from Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors in 1990 and Projected to 2020. Cambridge, MA: Harvard School of Medicine.
28.
OlsonChristine M.1999. “Nutrition and Health Outcomes Associated with Food Insecurity and Hunger.”Journal of Nutrition129:521S–24S.
29.
PearlinLeonard I.1989. “The Sociological Study of Stress.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior30:242–56.
30.
PearlinLeonardLiebermanMorton A.MenaghanElizabeth G.MullanJoseph T., 1981. “The Stress Process.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior22:337–56.
31.
PettersonStephenFrielLisa V., 2001. “Psychological Distress, Hopelessness, and Welfare.”Women and Health32:79–99.
32.
RadimerKathyOlsonChristine M.CampbellCathy C., 1990. “Development of Indicators to Assess Hunger.”Journal of Nutrition120:1544S–48S.
33.
RainvilleBrunoBrinkSatya. 2001. Food Insecurity in Canada, 1998–1999. Hull, QC: HRDC Publications Centre.
34.
RichesGraham, ed. 1997. First World Hunger: Food Security and Welfare Politics. New York: St. Martin's Press.
35.
RichesGraham, ed. 2002. “Food Banks and Food Security: Welfare Reform, Human Rights, and Social Policy. Lessons from Canada?”Social Policy and Administration36:648–63.
36.
RoseDonaldOliveiraVictor. 1997. “Nutrient Intakes from Food Insufficient Households in the United States.”American Journal of Public Health87:1956–61.
37.
RossCatherine E.MirowskyJohn. 1989. “Explaining the Patterns of Depression: Control and Problem Solving—or Support and Talking?”Journal of Health and Social Behavior30:206–19.
38.
ScottRichard I.WehlerCheryl A., 1998. “Food Insecurity/Food Insufficiency: An Empirical Examination of Alternative Measures of Food Problems in US Households.” Discussion Paper No. 1176-98, Madison, WI: Institute for Research on Poverty.
39.
SiefertKristineHeflinColleen M.CorcoranMary E.WilliamsDavid R., 2004. “Food Insufficiency and the Physical and Mental Health of Low-Income Women.”Women and Health32:159–77.
40.
SimonRobin W.1995. “Gender, Multiple Roles, Role Meaning, and Mental Health.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior36:182–94.
41.
SpitzerRobert. 1989. DSM—III-R Casebook: A Learning Companion to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
42.
Statistics Canada. 1996. National Population Health Survey Public Use Microdata File Use Documentation. Ottawa, ON: Ministry of Supply and Services.
43.
Statistics Canada. 1999. National Population Health Survey, 1996–97: Microdata FileOttawa, ON: Minister of Supply and Services.
44.
StephensThomasJoubertNatacha. 2001. “The Economic Burden of Mental Health Problems in Canada.”Chronic Diseases in Canada22:18–23.
45.
StuffJanice E.CaseyPatrick H.SzetoKitty L.GossettJeffrey M.RobbinsJames M.SimpsonPippa M.ConnellCarolBogleMargaret L., 2004. “Household Food Insecurity Is Associated with Adult Health Status.”Journal of Nutrition134:2330–35.
46.
SwainLarryGatlinGaryBeaudetMarie P., 1999. “The National Population Health Survey—Its Longitudinal Nature.”Health Reports10:69–82.
47.
TarasukValerie S.1999. “Household Food Insecurity and Hunger among Families Using Food Banks.”Canadian Journal of Public Health90:109–13.
48.
TarasukValerie S.2001a. “Discussion Paper on Household and Individual Food Insecurity.”Ottawa, ON: Health Canada.
49.
TarasukValerie S.2001b. “Household Food Insecurity with Hunger Is Associated with Women's Food Intakes, Health, and Household Circumstances.”Journal of Nutrition131:2670–76.
50.
TarasukValerie S.BeatonGeorge H., 1999. “Household Food Insecurity and Hunger among Families Using Food Banks.”Canadian Journal of Public Health90:109–13.
51.
TarasukValerie S.MacleanH.1990. “The Food Problems of Low-income Single Mothers: An Ethnographic Study.”Canadian Home Economic Journal40:76–82.
52.
ThoitsPeggy A.1995. “Stress, Coping, and Social Support Processes: Where Are We? What Next?”Journal of Health and Social Behavior35:53–79.
53.
TurnerR. JayLloydDonald A., 1999. “The Stress Process and the Social Distribution of Depression.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior40:374–404.
54.
TurnerR. JayMarinoFranco. 1994. “Social Support and Social Structure: A Descriptive Epidemiology.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior35:193–212.
55.
VozorisNicholas T.TarasukValerie S., 2003. “Household Food Insufficiency Is Associated with Poorer Health.”Journal of Nutrition133:120–26.
56.
WeinrebLindaWehlerCherylPerloffJenniferScottRichardHosmerDavidSagorLindaGundersenCraig. 2002. “Hunger: Its Impact on Children's Health and Mental Health.”Pediatrics111:1–9.
57.
WeissmanM.PrusoffB.ThompsonW.HardingP.MyersJ.1978. “Social Adjustment by Self-Report in a Community Sample and in Psychiatric Outpatients.”Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease166:317–26.
58.
WheatonBlair. 2001. “The Role of Sociology in the Study of Mental Health … and the Role of Mental Health in the Study of Sociology.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior42:221–34.
59.
WilliamsDavid R.1990. “Socioeconomic Differentials in Health: A Review and Redirection.”Social Psychological Quarterly53:81–99.
60.
World Health Organization. 1990. Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI, Version 1.0). Geneva: World Health Organization.
61.
World Health Organization. 2001. World Health Report 2001—Mental Health: New Understanding, New Hope. Geneva: World Health Organization.
62.
WuZhengNohSamuelKasparVioletSchimmeleChristoph M., 2003. “Race, Ethnicity, and Depression in Canadian Society.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior44:426–41.
