Automation is often problematic because people fail to rely upon it appropriately. Because people respond to technology socially, trust influences reliance on automation. In particular, trust guides reliance when complexity and unanticipated situations make a complete understanding of the automation impractical. This review considers trust from the organizational, sociological, interpersonal, psychological, and neurological perspectives. It considers how the context, automation characteristics, and cognitive processes affect the appropriateness of trust. The context in which the automation is used influences automation performance and provides a goal-oriented perspective to assess automation characteristics along a dimension of attributional abstraction. These characteristics can influence trust through analytic, analogical, and affective processes. The challenges of extrapolating the concept of trust in people to trust in automation are discussed. A conceptual model integrates research regarding trust in automation and describes the dynamics of trust, the role of context, and the influence of display characteristics. Actual or potential applications of this research include improved designs of systems that require people to manage imperfect automation.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
2.
Baba, M. L. (1999). Dangerous liaisons: Trust, distrust, and information technology in American work organizations. Human Organization, 58, 331–346.
3.
Baba, M. L., Falkenburg, D. R., & Hill, D. H. (1996). Technology management and American culture: Implications for business process redesign. Research Technology Management, 39(6), 44–54.
4.
Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37, 122–147.
5.
Barber, B. (1983). The logic and limits of trust. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
6.
Barley, S. R. (1988). The social construction of a machine: Ritual, superstition, magical thinking and other pragmatic responses to running a CT scanner. In M. Lock & D. R. Gordon (Eds.), Biomedicine examined (pp. 497–539). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.
7.
Bechara, A., Damasio, A. R., Damasio, H., & Anderson, S. W. (1994). Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition, 50, 7–15.
8.
Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Anderson, S. W. (1998). Dissociation of working memory from decision making within the human prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 428–437.
9.
Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. (1997). Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy. Science, 275(5304), 1293–1295.
10.
Beer, R. D. (2001). Dynamical approaches in cognitive science. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 91–99.
11.
Berscheid, E. (1994). Interpersonal relationships. Annual Review of Psychology, 45, 79–129.
12.
Bhattacharya, R., Devinney, T. M., & Pillutla, M. M. (1998). A formal model of trust based on outcomes. Academy of Management Review, 23, 459–472.
13.
Bisantz, A. M., & Seong, Y. (2001). Assessment of operator trust in and utilization of automated decision-aids under different framing conditions. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 28(2), 85–97.
14.
Bliss, J., Dunn, M., & Fuller, B. S. (1995). Reversal of the cry-wolf effect --- An investigation of two methods to increase alarm response rates. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 80, 1231–1242.
15.
Brehmer, B., & Dorner, D. (1993). Experiments with computersimulated microworlds: Escaping both the narrow straits of the laboratory and the deep blue sea of the field-study. Computers in Human Behavior, 9, 171–184.
16.
Brewster, S. A. (1997). Using non-speech sound to overcome information overload. Displays, 17, 179–189.
17.
Briggs, P., Burford, B., & Dracup, C. (1998). Modeling selfconfidence in users of a computer-based system showing unrepresentative design. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 49, 717–742.
18.
Burt, R. S., & Knez, M. (1996). Trust and third-party gossip. In R. M. Kramer & T. R. Tyler (Eds.), Trust in organizations: Frontiers of theory and research (pp. 68–89). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
19.
Busemeyer, J. R., & Townsend, J. T. (1993). Decision field theory: A dynamic cognitive approach to decision making in an uncertain environment. Psychological Review, 100, 432–459.
20.
Butler, J. K., & Cantrell, R. S. (1984). A behavioral decision theory approach to modeling trust in superiors and subordinates. Psychological Reports, 55, 19–28.
21.
Case, K., Sinclair, M. A., & Rani, M. R. A. (1999). An experimental investigation of human mismatches in machining. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part B --- Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 213, 197–201.
22.
Cassell, J., & Bickmore, T. (2000). External manifestations of trustworthiness in the interface. Communications of the ACM, 43(12), 50–56.
23.
Castelfranchi, C. (1998). Modelling social action for AI agents. Artificial Intelligence, 103, 157–182.
24.
Castelfranchi, C., & Falcone, R. (2000). Trust and control: A dialectic link. Applied Artificial Intelligence, 14, 799–823.
25.
Cohen, M. S. (2000). Training for trust in decision aids, with applications to the rotorcraft's pilot's associate. Presented at the International Conference on Human Performance, Situation Awareness, and Automation, Savannah, GA. Abstract retrieved March 8, 2004, from http://www.cog-tech.com/papers/Trust/Adaptive%20Automation%20abstract%20final.pdf
26.
Cohen, M. S., Parasuraman, R., & Freeman, J. (1999). Trust in decision aids: A model and its training implications (Tech. Report USAATCOM TR 97-D-4). Arlington, VA: Cognitive Technologies.
27.
Conejo, R. A., & Wickens, C. D. (1997). The effects of highlighting validity and feature type on air-to-ground target acquisition performance (ARL-97-11/NAWC-ONR-97-1). Savoy, IL: Aviation Research Laboratory Institute for Aviation.
28.
Cook, J., & Wall, T. (1980). New work attitude measures of trust, organizational commitment and personal need non-fulfillment. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 53, 39–52.
29.
Corritore, C. L., Kracher, B., & Wiedenbeck, S. (2001a, March---April). Trust in the online environment. Workshop presented at the CHI 2001 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Seattle, WA.
30.
Corritore, C. L., Kracher, B., & Wiedenbeck, S. (2001b). Trust in the online environment. In M. J. Smith, G. Salvendy, D. Harris, & R. J. Koubek (Eds.), Usability evaluation and interface design: Cognitive engineering, intelligent agents and virtual reality (pp. 1548–1552). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
31.
Corritore, C. L., Kracher, B., & Wiedenbeck, S. (2003a). On-line trust: Concepts, evolving themes, a model. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 58, 737–758.
32.
Corritore, C. L., Kracher, B., & Wiedenbeck, S. (Eds.). (2003b). Trust and technology [Special issue]. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 58(6).
33.
Couch, L. L., & Jones, W. H. (1997). Measuring levels of trust. Journal of Research in Personality, 31(3), 319–336.
34.
Coutu, D. L. (1998). Trust in virtual teams. Harvard Business Review, 76, 20–21.
35.
Crocoll, W. M., & Coury, B. G. (1990). Status or recommendation: Selecting the type of information for decision aiding. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting (pp. 1524–1528). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
36.
Crossman, E. R. F. W. (1974). Automation and skill. In E. Edwards & F. P. Lees (Eds.), The human operator in process control (pp. 1–24). London: Taylor & Francis.
37.
Damasio, A. R. (1996). The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B --- Biological Sciences, 351, 1413–1420.
38.
Damasio, A. R. (1999). The feeling of what happens: Body and emotion in the making of consciousness. New York: Harcourt.
39.
Damasio, A. R. (2003). Looking for Spinoza: Joy, sorrow, and the feeling brain. New York: Harcourt.
40.
Damasio, A. R., Tranel, D., & Damasio, H. (1990). Individuals with sociopathic behavior caused by frontal damage fail to respond autonomically to social-stimuli. Behavioural Brain Research, 41, 81–94.
41.
Dassonville, I., Jolly, D., & Desodt, A. M. (1996). Trust between man and machine in a teleoperation system. Reliability Engineering and System Safety, 53, 319–325.
42.
Deutsch, M. (1958). Trust and suspicion. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2, 265–279.
43.
Deutsch, M. (1960). The effect of motivational orientation upon trust and suspicion. Human Relations, 13, 123–139.
44.
Doney, P. M., Cannon, J. P., & Mullen, M. R. (1998). Understanding the influence of national culture on the development of trust. Academy of Management Review, 23, 601–620.
45.
Dzindolet, M. T., Pierce, L. G., Beck, H. P., & Dawe, L. A. (2002). The perceived utility of human and automated aids in a visual detection task. Human Factors, 44, 79–94.
46.
Dzindolet, M. T., Pierce, L. G., Beck, H. P., Dawe, L. A., & Anderson, B. W. (2001). Predicting misuse and disuse of combat identification systems. Military Psychology, 13, 147–164.
47.
Entin, E. B., Entin, E. E., & Serfaty, D. (1996). Optimizing aided target-recognition performance. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 40th Annual Meeting (pp. 233–237). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
48.
Farrell, S., & Lewandowsky, S. (2000). A connectionist model of complacency and adaptive recovery under automation. Journal of Experimental Psychology --- Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 395–410.
49.
Fine, G. A., & Holyfield, L. (1996). Secrecy, trust, and dangerous leisure: Generating group cohesion in voluntary organizations. Social Psychology Quarterly, 59, 22–38.
50.
Finucane, M. L., Alhakami, A., Slovic, P., & Johnson, S. M. (2000). The affect heuristic in judgments of risks and benefits. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 13, 1–17.
51.
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
52.
Fogg, B., Marshall, J., Kameda, T., Solomon, J., Rangnekar, A., Boyd, J., et al. (2001). Web credibility research: A method for online experiments and early study results. In CHI 2001 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 293–294). New York: Association for Computing Machinery.
53.
Fogg, B., Marshall, J., Laraki, O., Osipovich, A., Varma, C., Fang, N., et al. (2001). What makes Web sites credible? A report on a large quantitative study. In CHI 2001 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 61–68). New York: Association for Computing Machinery.
54.
Fox, J. M. (1996). Effects of information accuracy on user trust and compliance. In CHI 1996 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 35–36). New York: Association for Computing Machinery.
55.
Fox, J. M., & Boehm-Davis, D. A. (1998). Effects of age and congestion information accuracy of advanced traveler information on user trust and compliance. Transportation Research Record, 1621, 43–49.
56.
Furukawa, H., & Inagaki, T. (1999). Situation-adaptive interface based on abstraction hierarchies with an updating mechanism for maintaining situation awareness of plant operators. In Proceedings of the 1999 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (pp. 693–698). Piscataway, NJ: IEEE.
57.
Furukawa, H., & Inagaki, T. (2001). A graphical interface design for supporting human-machine cooperation: Representing automation's intentions by means-ends relations. In Proceedings of the 8th IFAC/IFIP/IFORS/IEA Symposium on Analysis, Design, and Evaluation of Human-Machine Systems (pp. 573–578). Laxenburg, Austria: International Federation of Automatic Control.
58.
Gabarro, J. J. (1978). The development of trust influence and expectations. In A. G. Athos & J. J. Gabarro (Eds.), Interpersonal behavior: Communication and understanding in relationships (pp. 290–230). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
59.
Gaines, S. O., Panter, A. T., Lyde, M. D., Steers, W. N., Rusbult, C. E., Cox, C. L., et al. (1997). Evaluating the circumplexity of interpersonal traits and the manifestation of interpersonal traits in interpersonal trust. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 610–623.
60.
Gist, M. E., & Mitchell, T. R. (1992). Self-efficacy --- A theoretical analysis of its determinants and malleability. Academy of Management Review, 17, 183–211.
61.
Gong, L., Nass, C., Simard, C., & Takhteyev, Y. (2001). When non-human is better than semi-human: Consistency in speech interfaces. In M. J. Smith, G. Salvendy, D. Harris, & R. Koubek (Eds.), Usability evaluation and interface design: Cognitive engineering, intelligent agents, and virtual reality (pp. 1558–1562). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
62.
Grice, H. P. (Ed.). (1975). Logic and conversation: Vol. 3. Speech acts. New York: Academic.
63.
Gurtman, M. B. (1992). Trust, distrust, and interpersonal problems: A circumplex analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 989–1002.
64.
Halprin, S., Johnson, E., & Thornburry, J. (1973). Cognitive reliability in manned systems. IEEE Transactions on Reliability, R-22, 165–169.
65.
Hardin, R. (1992). The street-level epistemology of trust. Politics and Society, 21, 505–529.
66.
Hoc, J. M. (2000). From human-machine interaction to humanmachine cooperation. Ergonomics, 43, 833–843.
67.
Holmes, J. G. (1991). Trust and the appraisal process in close relationships. In W. H. Jones & D. Perlman (Eds.), Advances in personal relationships (Vol. 2, pp. 57–104). London: Jessica Kingsley.
68.
Hovland, C. I., Janis, I. L., & Kelly, H. H. (1953). Communication and persuasion: Psychological studies of opinion change. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
69.
Huang, H., Keser, C., Leland, J., & Shachat, J. (2002). Trust, the Internet and the digital divide (RC22511). Yorktown Heights, NY: IBM Research Division.
70.
Inagaki, T., Takae, Y., & Moray, N. (1999). Decision supported information for takeoff safety in human-centered automation: An experimental investigation of time-fragile characteristics. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (Vol. 1, pp. 1101–1106). Piscataway, NJ: IEEE.
71.
Itoh, M., Abe, G., & Tanaka, K. (1999). Trust in and use of automation: Their dependence on occurrence patterns of malfunctions. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (Vol. 3, pp. 715–720). Piscataway, NJ: IEEE.
72.
Janis, I. L., & Mann, L. (1977). Decision making: A psychological analysis of conflict, choice, and commitment. New York: Free.
73.
Jennings, E. E. (1967). The mobile manager: A study of the new generation of top executives. Ann Arbor, MI: Bureau of Industrial Relations, University of Michigan.
74.
Johns, J. L. (1996). A concept analysis of trust. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 24, 76–83.
75.
Johnson-Laird, P. N., & Oately, K. (1992). Basic emotions, rationality, and folk theory. Cognition and Emotion, 6, 201–223.
76.
Jones, G. R., & George, J. M. (1998). The experience and evolution of trust: Implications for cooperation and teamwork. Academy of Management Review, 23, 531–546.
77.
Kantowitz, B. H., Hanowski, R. J., & Kantowitz, S. C. (1997a). Driver acceptance of unreliable traffic information in familiar and unfamiliar settings. Human Factors, 39, 164–176.
78.
Kantowitz, B. H., Hanowski, R. J., & Kantowitz, S. C. (1997b). Driver reliability requirements for traffic advisory information. In Y. I. Noy (Ed.), Ergonomics and safety of intelligent driver interfaces (pp. 1–22). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
79.
Karvonen, K. (2001). Designing trust for a universal audience: A multicultural study on the formation of trust in the internet in the Nordic countries. In C. Stephanidis (Ed.), First International Conference on Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction (Vol. 3, pp. 1078–1082). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
80.
Karvonen, K., & Parkkinen, J. (2001). Signs of trust: A semiotic study of trust formation in the Web. In M. J. Smith, G. Salvendy, D. Harris, & R. J. Koubek (Eds.), First International Conference on Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction (Vol. 1, pp. 1076–1080). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
81.
Kee, H. W., & Knox, R. E. (1970). Conceptual and methodological considerations in the study of trust and suspicion. Conflict Resolution, 14, 357–366.
82.
Kelso, J. A. S. (1995). Dynamic patterns: Self-organization of brain and behavior. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
83.
Kikuchi, M., Wantanabe, Y., & Yamasishi, T. (1996). Judgment accuracy of other's trustworthiness and general trust: An experimental study. Japanese Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 23–36.
84.
Kim, J., & Moon, J. Y. (1998). Designing towards emotional usability in customer interfaces --- Trustworthiness of cyber-banking system interfaces. Interacting With Computers, 10, 1–29.
85.
Kirlik, A. (1993). Modeling strategic behavior in human-automation interaction: Why an “aid” can (and should) go unused. Human Factors, 35, 221–242.
86.
Klein, G. A. (1989). Recognition-primed decisions. In W. B. Rouse (Ed.), Advances in man-machine system research (Vol. 5, pp. 47–92). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
87.
Kramer, R. M. (1999). Trust and distrust in organizations: Emerging perspectives, enduring questions. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 569–598.
88.
Kramer, R. M., Brewer, M. B., & Hanna, B. A. (1996). Collective trust and collective action: The decision to trust as a social decision. In R. M. Kramer & T. R. Tyler (Eds.), Trust in organizations: Frontiers of theory and research (pp. 357–389). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
89.
Kramer, R. M., & Tyler, T. R. (Eds.). (1996). Trust in organizations: Frontiers of theory and research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
90.
Lee, J. D., Gore, B. F., & Campbell, J. L. (1999). Display alternatives for in-vehicle warning and sign information: Message style, location, and modality. Transportation Human Factors, 1, 347–377.
91.
Lee, J. D., & Moray, N. (1992). Trust, control strategies and allocation of function in human-machine systems. Ergonomics, 35, 1243–1270.
92.
Lee, J. D., & Moray, N. (1994). Trust, self-confidence, and operators' adaptation to automation. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 40, 153–184.
93.
Lee, J. D., & Sanquist, T. F. (1996). Maritime automation. In R. Parasuraman & M. Mouloua (Eds.), Automation and human performance (pp. 365–384). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
94.
Lee, J. D., & Sanquist, T. F. (2000). Augmenting the operator function model with cognitive operations: Assessing the cognitive demands of technological innovation in ship navigation. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics --- Part A: Systems and Humans, 30, 273–285.
95.
Lee, M. K. O., & Turban, E. (2001). A trust model for consumer Internet shopping. International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 6(1), 75–91.
96.
Lewandowsky, S., Mundy, M., & Tan, G. (2000). The dynamics of trust: Comparing humans to automation. Journal of Experimental Psychology --- Applied, 6, 104–123.
97.
Lewicki, R. J., & Bunker, B. B. (1996). Developing and maintaining trust in work relationships. In R. M. Kramer & T. R. Tyler (Eds.), Trust in organizations: Frontiers of theory and research (pp. 114–139). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
98.
Lewis, M. (1998). Designing for human-agent interaction. A1 Magazine, 19(2), 67–78.
99.
Lichtenstein, S., Fischhoff, B., & Phillips, L. D. (1982). Calibration of probabilities: The state of the art to 1980. In D. Kahneman, P. Slovic, & A. Tversky (Eds.), Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases (pp. 306–334). New York: Cambridge University Press.
100.
Liu, Y., Fuld, R., & Wickens, C. D. (1993). Monitoring behavior in manual and automated scheduling systems. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 39, 1015–1029.
101.
Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 267–286.
102.
MacMillan, J., Entin, E. B., & Serfaty, D. (1994). Operator reliance on automated support for target acquisition. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting (pp. 1285–1289). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
103.
Malhotra, D., & Murnighan, J. K. (2002). The effects of contracts on interpersonal trust. Administrative Science Quarterly, 47, 534–559.
104.
Masalonis, A. J. (2000). Effects of situation-specific reliability on trust and usage of automated decision aids. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Catholic University of America, Washington, DC.
105.
Mayer, R. C., Davis, J. H., & Schoorman, F. D. (1995). An integrative model of organizational trust. Academy of Management Review, 20, 709–734.
106.
McKnight, D. H., Cummings, L. L., & Chervany, N. L. (1998). Initial trust formation in new organizational relationships. Academy of Management Review, 23, 473–490.
107.
Meyer, J. (2001). Effects of warning validity and proximity on responses to warnings. Human Factors, 43, 563–572.
108.
Meyerson, D., Weick, K. E., & Kramer, R. M. (1996). Swift trust and temporary groups. In R. M. Kramer & T. R. Tyler (Eds.), Trust in organizations: Frontiers of theory and research (pp. 166–195). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
109.
Milewski, A. E., & Lewis, S. H. (1997). Delegating to software agents. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 46, 485–500.
110.
Miller, C. A. (2002). Definitions and dimensions of etiquette. In C. Miller (Ed.), Etiquette for human-computer work (Tech. Report FS-02-02, pp. 1–7). Menlo Park, CA: American Association for Artificial Intelligence.
111.
Mishra, A. K. (1996). Organizational response to crisis. In R. M. Kramer & T. R. Tyler (Eds.), Trust in organizations: Frontiers of theory and research (pp. 261–287). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
112.
Molloy, R., & Parasuraman, R. (1996). Monitoring an automated system for a single failure: Vigilance and task complexity effects. Human Factors, 38, 311–322.
113.
Montgomery, D. A., & Sorkin, R. D. (1996). Observer sensitivity to element reliability in a multielement visual display. Human Factors, 38, 484–494.
114.
Moorman, C., Deshpande, R., & Zaltman, G. (1993). Factors affecting trust in market-research relationships. Journal of Marketing, 57(1), 81–101.
115.
Moray, N. (2003). Monitoring, complacency, scepticism and eutactic behaviour. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 31, 175–178.
116.
Moray, N., & Inagaki, T. (1999). Laboratory studies of trust between humans and machines in automated systems. Transactions of the Institute of Measurement and Control, 21, 203–211.
117.
Moray, N., Inagaki, T., & Itoh, M. (2000). Adaptive automation, trust, and self-confidence in fault management of time-critical tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology --- Applied, 6, 44–58.
118.
Morgan, R. M., & Hunt, S. D. (1994). The commitment-trust theory of relationship marketing. Journal of Marketing, 58(3), 20–38.
119.
Mosier, K. L., Skitka, L. J., Heers, S., & Burdick, M. (1998). Automation bias: Decision making and performance in hightech cockpits. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 8, 47–63.
120.
Mosier, K. L., Skitka, L. J., & Korte, K. J. (1994). Cognitive and social issues in flight crew/automation interaction. In M. Mouloua & R. Parasuraman (Eds.), Human performance in automated systems: Current research and trends (pp. 191–197). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
121.
Muir, B. M. (1987). Trust between humans and machines, and the design of decision aides. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 27, 527–539.
122.
Muir, B. M. (1989). Operators' trust in and use of automatic controllers in a supervisory process control task. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
123.
Muir, B. M. (1994). Trust in automation: 1. Theoretical issues in the study of trust and human intervention in automated systems. Ergonomics, 37, 1905–1922.
124.
Muir, B. M., & Moray, N. (1996). Trust in automation: 2. Experimental studies of trust and human intervention in a process control simulation. Ergonomics, 39, 429–460.
125.
Muller, G. (1996). Secure communication --- Trust in technology or trust with technology?Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 21, 336–347.
126.
Nass, C., & Lee, K. N. (2001). Does computer-synthesized speech manifest personality? Experimental tests of recognition, similarity-attraction, and consistency-attraction. Journal of Experimental Psychology --- Applied, 7, 171–181.
127.
Nass, C., & Moon, Y. (2000). Machines and mindlessness: Social responses to computers. Journal of Social Issues, 56, 81–103.
128.
Nass, C., Moon, Y., Fogg, B. J., Reeves, B., & Dryer, D. C. (1995). Can computer personalities be human personalities?International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 43, 223–239.
129.
National Transportation Safety Board. (1997). Marine accident report --- Grounding of the Panamanian passenger ship Royal Majesty on Rose and Crown Shoal near Nantucket, Massachusetts, June 10, 1995 (NTSB/MAR97/01). Washington, DC: Author.
130.
Norman, D. A., Ortony, A., & Russell, D. M. (2003). Affect and machine design: Lessons for the development of autonomous machines. IBM Systems Journal, 42, 38–44.
131.
Nyhan, R. C. (2000). Changing the paradigm --- Trust and its role in public sector organizations. American Review of Public Administration, 30, 87–109.
132.
Ockerman, J. J. (1999). Over-reliance issues with task-guidance systems. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 43rd Annual Meeting (pp. 1192–1196). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
133.
Ostrom, E. (1998). A behavioral approach to the rational choice theory of collective action. American Political Science Review, 92, 1–22.
134.
Pally, R. (1998). Emotional processing: The mind-body connection. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 79, 349–362.
135.
Panksepp, J., & Bernatzky, G. (2002). Emotional sounds and the brain: The neuro-affective foundations of musical appreciation. Behavioural Processes, 60, 133–155.
136.
Parasuraman, R., Molloy, R., & Singh, I. (1993). Performance consequences of automation-induced “complacency.”International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 3, 1–23.
137.
Parasuraman, R., Mouloua, M., & Molloy, R. (1994). Monitoring automation failures in human-machine systems. In M. Mouloua & R. Parasuraman (Eds.), Human performance in automated systems: Current research and trends (pp. 45–49). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
138.
Parasuraman, R., Mouloua, M., & Molloy, R. (1996). Effects of adaptive task allocation on monitoring of automated systems. Human Factors, 38, 665–679.
139.
Parasuraman, R., & Riley, V. (1997). Humans and automation: Use, misuse, disuse, abuse. Human Factors, 39, 230–253.
140.
Parasuraman, R., Sheridan, T. B., & Wickens, C. D. (2000). A model for types and levels of human interaction with automation. IEEE Transactions on Systems Man and Cybernetics --- Part A: Systems and Humans, 30, 286–297.
141.
Parasuraman, S., Singh, I. L., Molloy, R., & Parasuraman, R. (1992). Automation-related complacency: A source of vulnerability in contemporary organizations. IFIP Transactions A --- Computer Science and Technology, 13, 426–432.
142.
Picard, R. W. (1997). Affective computing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
143.
Rasmussen, J. (1983). Skills, rules, and knowledge: Signals, signs, and symbols, and other distinctions in human performance models. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, SMC-13, 257–266.
144.
Rasmussen, J., Pejterson, A. M., & Goodstein, L. P. (1994). Cognitive systems engineering. New York: Wiley.
145.
Rasmussen, J., & Vicente, K. J. (1989). Coping with human errors through system design: Implications for ecological interface design. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 31, 517–534.
146.
Reeves, B., & Nass, C. (1996). The media equation: How people treat computers, television, and new media like real people and places. New York: Cambridge University Press.
147.
Rempel, J. K., Holmes, J. G., & Zanna, M. P. (1985). Trust in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49(1), 95–112.
148.
Riegelsberger, J., & Sasse, M. A. (2002). Face it --- Photos don't make a Web site trustworthy. In CHI 2002 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems Extended Abstracts (pp. 742–743). New York: Association for Computing Machinery.
149.
Riley, V. (1996). Operator reliance on automation: Theory and data. In R. Parasuraman & M. Mouloua (Eds.), Automation theory and applications (pp. 19–35). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
150.
Riley, V. A. (1994). Human use of automation. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.
151.
Rilling, J. K., Gutman, D. A., Zeh, T. R., Pagnoni, G., Berns, G. S., & Kilts, C. D. (2002). A neural basis for social cooperation. Neuron, 35, 395–405.
152.
Ring, P. S., & Vandeven, A. H. (1992). Structuring cooperative relationships between organizations. Strategic Management Journal, 13, 483–498.
153.
Ross, W., & LaCroix, J. (1996). Multiple meanings of trust in negotiation theory and research: A literature review and integrative model. International Journal of Conflict Management, 7, 314–360.
154.
Rotter, J. B. (1967). A new scale for the measurement of interpersonal trust. Journal of Personality, 35, 651–665.
155.
Rotter, J. B. (1971). Generalized expectancies for interpersonal trust. American Psychologist, 26, 443–452.
156.
Rotter, J. B. (1980). Interpersonal trust, trustworthiness, and gullibility. American Psychologist, 35, 1–7.
157.
Rousseau, D., Sitkin, S., Burt, R., & Camerer, C. (1998). Not so different after all: A cross-discipline view of trust. Academy of Management Review, 23, 393–404.
158.
Sato, Y. (1999). Trust and communication. Sociological Theory and Methods, 13, 155–168.
159.
Schindler, P. L., & Thomas, C. C. (1993). The structure of interpersonal trust in the workplace. Psychological Reports, 73, 563–573.
160.
Schwarz, N. (2000). Emotion, cognition, and decision making. Cognition and Emotion, 14, 433–440.
161.
Shaw, R., & Kinsella-Shaw, J. (1988). Ecological mechanics: A physical geometry for intentional constraints. Human Movement Science, 7, 155–200.
162.
Sheridan, T. B. (1975). Considerations in modeling the human supervisory controller. In Proceedings of the IFAC 6th World Congress (pp. 1–6). Laxenburg, Austria: International Federation of Automatic Control.
163.
Sheridan, T. B. (1992). Telerobotics, automation, and human supervisory control. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
164.
Sheridan, T. B., & Hennessy, R. T. (1984). Research and modeling of supervisory control behavior. Washington, DC: National Academy.
165.
Simon, H. (1957). Models of man. New York: Wiley.
166.
Simon, H. (1967). Motivational and emotional controls of cognition. Psychological Review, 74, 29–39.
167.
Singh, I. L., Molloy, R., & Parasuraman, R. (1993). Individual differences in monitoring failures of automation. Journal of General Psychology, 120, 357–373.
168.
Sitkin, S. B., & Roth, N. L. (1993). Explaining the limited effectiveness of legalistic “remedies” for trust/distrust. Organization Science, 4, 367–392.
169.
Sloman, S. A. (1996). The empirical case for two systems of reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 3–22.
170.
Slovic, P., Finucane, M. L., Peters, E., & McGregor, D. G. (in press). Risk as analysis and risk as feelings: Some thoughts about affect, reason, risk, and rationality. Risk Analysis.
171.
Sorkin, R. D., & Woods, D. D. (1985). Systems with human monitors: A signal detection analysis. Human-Computer Interaction, 1, 49–75.
172.
Sparaco, P. (1995, January 30). Airbus seeks to keep pilot, new technology in harmony. Aviation Week and Space Technology, pp. 62--63.
173.
Stack, L. (1978). Trust. In H. London & J. E. Exner, Jr. (Eds.), Dimensions of personality (pp. 561–599). New York: Wiley.
174.
Tan, H. H., & Tan, C. S. (2000). Toward the differentiation of trust in supervisor and trust in organization. Genetic, Social, and General Psychological Monographs, 126, 241–260.
175.
Tenney, Y. J., Rogers, W. H., & Pew, R. W. (1998). Pilot opinions on cockpit automation issues. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 8, 103–120.
176.
Thackray, R. I., & Touchstone, R. M. (1989). Detection efficiency on an air traffic control monitoring task with and without computer aiding. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 60, 744–748.
177.
Thelen, E., Schoner, G., Scheier, C., & Smith, L. B. (2001). The dynamics of embodiment: A field theory of infant perservative reaching. Behavior and Brain Sciences, 24, 1–86.
178.
Trentesaux, D., Moray, N., & Tahon, C. (1998). Integration of the human operator into responsive discrete production management systems. European Journal of Operational Research, 109, 342–361.
179.
Tseng, S., & Fogg, B. J. (1999). Credibility and computing technology. Communications of the ACM, 42(5), 39–44.
180.
van Gelder, T., & Port, R. E. (1995). It's about time: An overview of the dynamical approach to cognition. In R. F. Port & T. van Gelder (Eds.), Mind as motion (pp. 1–43). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
181.
Van House, N. A., Butler, M. H., & Schiff, L. R. (1998). Cooperating knowledge, work, and trust: Sharing environmental planning data sets. In Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (pp. 335–343). New York: Association for Computing Machinery.
182.
Vicente, K. J. (1999). Cognitive work analysis: Towards safe, productive, and healthy computer-based work. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
183.
Vicente, K. J. (2002). Ecological interface design: Progress and challenges. Human Factors, 44, 62–78.
184.
Vicente, K. J., & Rasmussen, J. (1992). Ecological interface design: Theoretical foundations. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, SMC-22, 589–606.
185.
Wickens, C. D., Gempler, K., & Morphew, M. E. (2000). Workload and reliability of predictor displays in aircraft traffic avoidance. Transportation Human Factors, 2, 99–126.
186.
Wicks, A. C., Berman, S. L., & Jones, T. M. (1999). The structure of optimal trust: Moral and strategic. Academy of Management Review, 24, 99–116.
187.
Williamson, O. (1993). Calculativeness, trust and economic organization. Journal of Law and Economics, 36, 453–486.
188.
Wright, G., Rowe, G., Bolger, F., & Gammack, J. (1994). Coherence, calibration, and expertise in judgmental probability forecasting. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 57, 1–25.
189.
Yamagishi, T., & Yamagishi, M. (1994). Trust and commitment in the United States and Japan. Motivation and Emotion, 18, 129–166.
190.
Yeh, M., & Wickens, C. D. (2001). Display signaling in augmented reality: Effects of cue reliability and image realism on attention allocation and trust calibration. Human Factors, 43, 355–365.
191.
Zheng, J., Bos, N., Olson, J. S., & Olson, G. M. (2001). Trust without touch: Jump-start trust with social chat. In CHI 2001 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems Extended Abstracts (pp. 293–294). New York: Association for Computing Machinery.
192.
Zuboff, S. (1988). In the age of smart machines: The future of work technology and power. New York: Basic Books.
