Similarities exist in how people process and represent spatial information and in the factors that contribute to disorientation, whether one is moving through airspace, on the ground, or surgically within the body. As such, design principles for presenting spatial information should bear similarities across these domains but also be somewhat specific to each. In this chapter, we review research in spatial cognition and its application to navigation system design for within-vehicle, aviation, and endoscopic navigation systems. Taken together, the research suggests three general principles for navigation system design consideration. First, multimedia displays should present spatial information visually and action and description information verbally. Second, display organizations should meet users' dynamic navigational goals. Third, navigation systems should be adaptable to users' spatial information preferences. Designers of adaptive navigation display technologies can maximize the effectiveness of those technologies by appealing to the basic spatial cognition processes employed by all users while conforming to user's domain-specific requirements.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AgrawalaM.StolteC. (2001). Rendering effective route maps: Improving usability through generalization. In Proceedings of the 28th Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (pp. 241–249). New York: ACM.
2.
AguirreG. K.D'EspositoM. (1999). Topographical disorientation: A synthesis and taxonomy. Brain, 122, 1613–1628.
3.
AllenW. H. (1971). Instructional media research: Past, present, and future. AV Communications Review, 19, 5–18.
4.
AppleyardD. (1970). Styles and methods of structuring a city. Environment & Behavior, 2, 100–118.
5.
AretzA. J. (1991). The design of electronic map displays. Human Factors, 33, 85–101.
6.
AretzA. J.WickensC. D. (1992). The mental rotation of map displays. Human Performance, 5, 303–328.
7.
BaddeleyA. D. (1992). Working memory. Science, 255, 556–559.
8.
BaddeleyA. D. (2002). Is working memory still working? European Psychologist, 7, 85–97.
9.
BaxterG.BesnardD.RileyD. (2007). Cognitive mismatches in the cockpit: Will they ever be a thing of the past? Applied Ergonomics, 38, 417–423.
10.
BesnardD.GreatheadD.BaxterG. (2004). When mental models go wrong: Co-occurrences in dynamic, critical systems. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 60, 117–128.
11.
BillingsC. E. (1997). Aviation automation: The search for a human-centered approach. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
12.
BoyG. A. (1987). Operator assistant systems. International Journal of Man-Machine Systems, 27, 541–554.
13.
BrooksA.NowakowskiC.GreenP. (1999). Turn-by-turn displays versus electronic maps: An on-the-road comparison of driver glance behavior (Tech. Rep. No. UMTRI-99–37). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute.
14.
BrunyéT. T.MahoneyC. R.AugustynJ. S.TaylorH. A. (2008). Arousal, but not mood, modulates spatial memory organization. Manuscript submitted for publication.
15.
BrunyéT. T.TaylorH. A. (2008a). Extended experience benefits spatial mental model development with route but not survey descriptions. Acta Psychologica, 127, 340–354.
16.
BrunyéT. T.TaylorH. A. (2008b). Working memory in developing and applying mental models from spatial descriptions. Journal of Memory and Language, 58, 701–729.
17.
BrunyéT. T.TaylorH. A. (in press). Lost on campus: Eye movements and memory for goal-oriented map study. Applied Cognitive Psychology.
18.
BrunyéT. T.TaylorH. A.RappD. N. (in press). Can you say that again? Repetition and integration in procedural multimedia learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology.
19.
BrunyéT. T.TaylorH. A.RappD. N.SpiroA. (2006). Multimedia presentation of procedures: Influences on memory for structure and content. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 917–940.
20.
BrunyéT. T.TaylorH. A.WorboysM. (2007). Matching levels of detail in descriptions and depictions of geographic space. Spatial Cognition and Computation, 7(3), 227–266.
21.
BurnettG. E. (2000, June). Usable vehicle navigation systems: Are we there yet? Paper presented at the Vehicle Electronic Systems Conference, Stratford-upon-Avon, UK.
22.
BurnettG. E.ParkesA. M. (1993). The benefits of “pre-information” in route guidance systems design for vehicles. In LoveseyE. J. (Ed.), Contemporary ergonomics (pp. 397–402). London: Taylor & Francis.
23.
CacioppoJ. T.PettyR. E.KaoC. F. (1984). The efficient assessment of need for cognition. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48, 306–307.
24.
CaoC. G. L. (2001). Designing for spatial orientation in endoscopic environments. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 45th Annual Meeting (pp. 1259–1263). Santa Monica, CA: SAGE Publications.
25.
CaoC. G. L. (2003, August). How do endoscopists maintain spatial awareness in colonoscopy? Paper presented at the International Ergonomics Association XVth Triennial Congress, Seoul, Korea.
26.
CaoC. G. L. (2007). Guiding navigation in colonoscopy. Surgical Endoscopy, 21, 480–484.
27.
CaoC. G. L.MilgramP. (2000). Disorientation in minimal access surgery: A case study. In Proceedings of the International Ergonomics Association 14th Triennial Congress/Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 44th Annual Meeting (pp. 4–169–4–172). Santa Monica, CA: SAGE Publications.
28.
CaoC. G. L.WaxbergS. L.SmithE. (2003). Role of landmark for spatial mapping in non-rigid environments. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 47th Annual Meeting (pp. 1545–1548). Santa Monica, CA: SAGE Publications.
29.
CasnerS. M. (2005). The effect of GPS and moving map displays on navigational awareness while flying under VFR. International Journal of Applied Aviation Studies, 5(1), 153–165.
30.
ChaseW. G. (1983). Spatial representations of taxi drivers. In RogersD. A.SlobodaJ. A. (Eds.), The acquisition of symbolic skills (pp. 391–405). New York: Plenum.
31.
Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). (2002). Aircraft serious incident report occurrence number 00/2518, b767–319er, zk-ncj. Petone, New Zealand: Author.
32.
CornellE. H.HillK. A. (2005). The problem of lost children. In SpencerC.BladesM. (Eds.), Children and their environments: Learning, using, and designing spaces (pp. 26–41). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
33.
CottonP. B.WilliamsC. B. (1990). Practical gastrointestinal endoscopy. London: Blackwell Scientific.
34.
CurielJ. M.RadvanskyG. A. (1998). Mental organization of maps. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24(1), 202–214.
35.
DanielM. P.DenisM. (2004). The production of route directions: Investigating conditions that favour conciseness in spatial discourse. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18, 57–75.
36.
DanielM. P.TomA.ManghiE.DenisM. (2003). Testing the value of route directions through navigational performance. Spatial Cognition and Computation, 3, 269–289.
37.
DeBeniR.PazzagliaF.GardiniS. (2006). The role of mental rotation and age in spatial perspective-taking tasks: When age does not impair the perspective-taking performance. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 807–821.
38.
DeBeniR.PazzagliaF.GyselinckV.MeneghettiC. (2005). Visuospatial working memory and mental representation of spatial descriptions. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 17(1), 77–95.
39.
DenisM. (1991). Cognitive and metacognitive approaches to visual imagery. Scientific Contributions to General Psychology, 6, 7–18.
40.
DenisM. (1997). The description of routes: A cognitive approach to the production of spatial discourse. Current Psychology of Cognition, 16, 409–458.
41.
DenisM.MichonP. E.TomA. (2007). Assisting pedestrian wayfinding in urban settings: Why references to landmarks are crucial in direction-giving. In AllenG. (Ed.), Applied spatial cognition: From research to cognitive theory (pp. 25–51). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
42.
DenisM.PazzagliaF.CornoldiC.BertoloL. (1999). Spatial discourse and navigation: An analysis of route directions in the city of Venice. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13, 145–174.
43.
deVegaM.Intons-PetersonM.Johnson-LairdP.DenisM.MarscharkM. (1996). Models of visuospatial cognition. New York: Oxford University Press.
44.
DevlinA. S. (1976). The “small town” cognitive map: Adjusting to a new environment. In MooreG. T.GolledgeR. G. (Eds.), Environmental knowing: Theories, research and methods (pp. 58–66). Stroudsberg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson, & Ross.
45.
DewarR. E. (1988). In-vehicle information and driver overload. International Journal of Vehicle Design, 9, 557–564.
46.
EvansG. W.PezdekK. (1980). Cognitive mapping: Knowledge of real-world distance and location information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6, 13–24.
47.
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). (1996). FAA human factors team report: The interfaces between flight-crews and modern flight deck systems. Washington, DC: Author.
48.
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). (2006). Aeronautical information manual: Official guide to basic flight information and ATC. Washington, DC: Author.
49.
FieldsA. W.SheltonA. L. (2006). Individual skill differences and large-scale environmental learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 32, 506–515.
50.
FlorenceD.GeiselmanR. E. (1986). Human performance evaluation of alternative graphic display symbologies. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 63, 399–406.
51.
FoleyM. A.FoleyH. J. (2007). Source-monitoring judgments about anagrams and their solutions: Evidence for the role of cognitive operations information in memory. Memory & Cognition, 35, 211–221.
52.
FooP.WarrenW. H.DuchonA.TarrM. J. (2005). Do humans integrate routes into a cognitive map? Map-versus landmark-based navigation of novel shortcuts. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31, 195–215.
53.
FrankA. U. (2003). Pragmatic information content: How to measure the information in a route description. In DuckhamM.GoodchildM. F. (Eds.), Foundations in geographic information science (pp. 47–68). London: Taylor & Francis.
54.
FrenchR. L. (1997). Land vehicle navigation: A worldwide perspective. Journal of Navigation, 50, 411–415.
55.
FukusimaS. S.LoomisJ. M.DaSilvaJ. A. (1997). Visual perception of egocentric distance as assessed by triangulation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 23, 86–100.
56.
GallistelC. R. (1990). The organization of learning. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
57.
GeorgeK.GreenP.FlemingJ. (1996). Timing of auditory route guidance instructions (Tech. Rep. No. UMTRI-95–6). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute.
58.
GladwinT. (1970). East is a big bird: Navigation and logic on Puluwat atoll. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
59.
GolledgeR. (1992). Place recognition and wayfinding: Making sense of space. Geoforum, 23, 199–214.
60.
GouldJ. L. (1986). The locale map of honey bees: Do insects have cognitive maps? Science, 232, 861–863.
61.
GreenP. (1996, January). In-vehicle information: Design of driver interfaces for route guidance. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
62.
GugertyL.BrooksJ. (2004). Reference-frame misalignment and cardinal direction judgments: Group differences and strategies. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 10, 75–88.
63.
HaluckR. S.WebsterR. W.SnyderA. J.MelkonianM. G.MohlerB. J.DiseM. L., et al. (2001). A virtual reality surgical trainer for navigation in laparoscopic surgery. In WestwoodJ. D.HoffmanH. M.MogelG. T.StredneyD.RobbR. A. (Eds.), Medicine meets virtual reality 2001: Outer space, inner space, virtual space (pp. 171–177). Washington, DC: IOS Press.
64.
HartleyT.MaguireE. A.SpiersH. J.BurgessN. (2003). The well-worn route and the path less travelled: Distinct neural bases of route following and wayfinding in humans. Neuron, 37, 377–388.
65.
HarwoodK.WickensC. D. (1991). Frames of reference for helicopter electronic maps: The relevance of spatial cognition and componential analysis. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 1, 5–23.
66.
HaskellI. D.WickensC. D. (1993). Two-and three-dimensional displays for aviation: A theoretical and empirical comparison. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 3, 87–109.
67.
HegartyM.MontelloD. R.RichardsonA. E.IshikawaT.LovelaceK. (2006). Spatial abilities at different scales: Individual differences in aptitude-test performance and spatial-layout learning. Intelligence, 34, 151–176.
68.
HegartyM.WallerD. (2004). A dissociation between mental rotation and perspective-taking spatial abilities. Intelligence, 32, 175–191.
69.
HegartyM.WallerD. (2005). Individual differences in spatial abilities. In ShahP.MiyakeA. (Eds.), Handbook of visuospatial thinking (pp. 121–169). New York: Cambridge University Press.
70.
HeidornP. B.HirtleS. C. (1993). Is spatial information imprecise or just coarse? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 16, 246–247.
71.
HermerL.SpelkeE. (1994). A geometric process for spatial reorientation in young children. Nature, 370, 57–59.
72.
HethC. D.CornellE. H. (1998). Characteristics of travel by persons lost in the Albertan wilderness areas. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 18, 223–235.
73.
HethC. D.CornellE. H. (2006). A geographic information system for managing search for lost persons. In AllenG. (Ed.), Applied spatial cognition: From research to cognitive technology (pp. 267–284). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
74.
HirtleS. C.JonidesJ. (1985). Evidence of hierarchies in cognitive maps. Memory & Cognition, 13(3), 208–217.
75.
HirtleS. C.MascoloM. F. (1986). The effect of semantic clustering on memory of spatial locations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 12, 181–189.
76.
HirtleS. C.SorrowsM. (2007). Navigation in electronic environments. In AllenG. (Ed.), Applied spatial cognition: From research to cognitive technology (pp. 103–128). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
77.
HirtleS. C.SorrowsM. E. (1998). Designing a multi-modal tool for locating buildings on a college campus. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 18, 265–276.
78.
HoldenJ. G.FlachJ. M.DonchinY. (1999). Perceptual-motor co-ordination in an endoscopic surgery simulation. Surgical Endoscopy, 13, 127–132.
79.
HolyoakK. J.MahW. A. (1982). Cognitive reference points in judgments of symbolic magnitude. Cognitive Psychology, 14, 328–352.
80.
HughT. B. (2002). New strategies to prevent laparoscopic bile duct injury: Surgeons can learn from pilots. Surgery, 132, 826–835.
81.
HullC. L. (1932). The goal-gradient hypothesis and maze learning. Psychological Review, 39, 25–43.
82.
HullC. L.SpenceK. W. (1938). “Correction” and “non-Correction”: Method of trial-and-error learning in rats. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 25, 127–145.
83.
JanzenG. (2006). Memory for object location and route direction in virtual large-scale space. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59, 493–508.
84.
Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association (JAMA). (2000). JAMA guidelines for in-vehicle display systems, version 2.1. Tokyo: Author.
85.
Johnson-LairdP. N. (1983). Mental models: Towards a cognitive science of language, inference, and consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
86.
JulS.FurnasG. W. (1997). Navigation in electronic worlds: Workshop report. SIGCHI Bulletin, 29, 44–49.
87.
KalakoskiV.SaariluomaP. (2001). Taxi drivers' exceptional memory of street names. Memory & Cognition, 29, 634–638.
88.
KaplanS. (1976). Adaptation, structure, and knowledge. In MooreG. T.GolledgeR. G. (Eds.), Environmental knowing: Theories, research, and methods (pp. 32–45). Stroudsberg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson, & Ross.
89.
KearnsM. J.WarrenW. H.DuchonA. P.TarrM. J. (2002). Path integration from optic flow and body senses in a homing task. Perception, 31, 349–374.
90.
KeehnerM. M.LippaY.MontelloD. R.TendickF.HegartyM. (2006). Learning a spatial skill for surgery: How the contributions of abilities change with practice. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 487–503.
91.
KeehnerM. M.TendickF.MengM. V.AnwarH. P.HegartyM.StollerM. L., et al. (2004). Spatial ability, experience, and skill in laparoscopic surgery. American Journal of Surgery, 188, 71–75.
92.
KlatzkyR. L.LoomisJ. M.BeallA. C.ChanceS. S.GolledgeR. G. (1998). Spatial updating of self-position and orientation during real, imagined, and virtual navigation. Psychological Science, 9, 293–298.
93.
KlippelA. (2003). Wayfinding choremes: Conceptualizing wayfinding and route direction elements. Bremen, Germany: Universität Bremen.
94.
KlippelA.FreksaC.WinterS. (2006). You-are-here maps in emergencies: The danger of getting lost. Journal of Spatial Science, 51, 117–131.
95.
KlippelA.TappeH.KulikL.LeeP. U. (2005). Wayfinding choremes: A language for modeling conceptual route knowledge. Journal of Visual Languages and Computing, 16, 311–329.
96.
KlippelA.WinterS. (2005). Structural salience of landmarks for route directions. In CohnA. G.MarkD. M. (Eds.), Spatial information theory: Lecture notes in computer science (Vol. 3693, pp. 347–362). Berlin: Springer.
97.
KozmaR. B. (1991). Learning with media. Review of Educational Research, 61, 179–212.
98.
KuhnW.TimpfS. (2003). Granularity transformations in wayfinding. In FreksaC.BrauerW.HabelC.WenderK. F. (Eds.), Spatial cognition III: Lecture notes in computer science (Vol. 2685, pp. 77–88). Berlin: Springer.
99.
LaddF. (1970). Black youths view their environment: Neighborhood maps. Environment and Behavior, 2, 74–99.
100.
LakoffG. (1987). Women, fire, and dangerous things: What categories reveal about the mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
101.
LeeP. U.TverskyB. (2005). Interplay between visual and spatial: The effect of landmark descriptions on comprehension of route/survey spatial descriptions. Spatial Cognition and Computation, 5(2–3), 163–185.
102.
LevieW. H.LentzR. (1982). Effects of text illustrations: A Review of research. Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 39, 195–232.
103.
LevineM.MarchonI.HanleyG. L. (1984). The placement and misplacement of you-are-here maps. Environment and Behavior, 16(2), 139–157.
104.
LewisD. (1970). We, the navigators: The ancient art of landfinding in the Pacific. Canberra: Australian National University Press.
105.
LoomisJ. M.KlatzkyR.PhilbeckJ. W.GolledgeR. G. (1998). Assessing auditory distance perception using perceptually directed action. Perception & Psychophysics, 60, 966–980.
106.
LoomisJ. M.LippaY.KlatzkyR.GolledgeR. G. (2002). Spatial updating of locations specified by 3-D sound and spatial language. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 335–345.
107.
MacEachrenA. M. (1995). How maps work: Representation, visualization, and design. New York: Guilford.
108.
MaddoxK. B.RappD. N.BrionS.TaylorH. A. (2008). Social influences on spatial memory. Memory & Cognition, 36, 479–494.
109.
MaguireE. A.BurgessN.DonnettJ. G.FrackowiakR. S. J.FrithC. D.O'KeefeJ. (1998). Knowing where and getting there: A human navigation network. Science, 280, 921–924.
110.
MaguireE. A.FrackowiakR. S. J.FrithC. D. (1996). Learning to find your way: A role for the human hippocampal formation. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 263, 1745–1750.
111.
MaguireE. A.FrackowiakR. S. J.FrithC. D. (1997). Recalling routes around London: Activation of the right hippocampus in taxi drivers. Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 7103–7110.
112.
MaguireE. A.GadianD. G.JohnsrudeI. S.GoodC. D.AshburnerJ.FrackowiakR. S. J., et al. (2000). Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97, 4398–4403.
113.
MaguireE. A.SpiersH. J.GoodC. D.HartleyT.FrackowiakR. S. J.BurgessN. (2003). Navigation expertise and the human hippocampus: A structural brain imaging analysis. Hippocampus, 13, 250–259.
114.
MaguireE. A.WoollettK.SpiersH. J. (2006). London taxi drivers and bus drivers: A structural MRI and neuropsychological analysis. Hippocampus, 16, 1091–1101.
115.
MakiR. H.MakiW. S.MarshL. G. (1977). Processing locational and orientational information. Memory & Cognition, 5, 602–612.
116.
ManiK.Johnson-LairdP. N. (1982). The mental representation of spatial descriptions. Memory & Cognition, 10, 181–187.
117.
MärvikR.LangeT.TangenG. A.AndersenJ. O.KaspersenJ. H.YstgaardB., et al. (2004). Laparoscopic navigation pointer for three-dimensional image-guided surgery. Surgical Endoscopy, 18, 1242–1248.
118.
MayM.KlatzkyR. L. (2000). Path integration while ignoring irrelevant movement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 169–186.
119.
MayerR. E. (1997). Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions? Educational Psychologist, 32, 1–19.
120.
MayerR. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
121.
McCormickE.WickensC. D.BanksR.YehM. (1998). Frame of reference effects on scientific visualization subtasks. Human Factors, 40, 443–451.
122.
McDougallS.TyrerV.FolkardS. (2006). Searching for signs, symbols, and icons: Effects of time of day, visual complexity, and grouping. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 12, 118–128.
123.
McNamaraT. P. (1991). Memory's view of space. In BowerG. H. (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 27, pp. 147–186). San Diego: Academic Press.
124.
McNamaraT. P.HalpinJ. A.HardyJ. K. (1992a). The representation and integration in memory of spatial and nonspatial information. Memory & Cognition, 20, 519–532.
125.
McNamaraT. P.HalpinJ. A.HardyJ. K. (1992b). Spatial and temporal contributions to the structure of spatial memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 555–564.
126.
McNamaraT. P.HardyJ. K.HirtleS. C. (1989). Subjective hierarchies in spatial memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 211–227.
127.
MontelloD. R.HegartyM.RichardsonA. E.WallerD. (2004). Spatial memory of real environments, virtual environments, and maps. In AllenG. (Ed.), Human spatial memory: Remembering where (pp. 251–285). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
128.
MorayN. (1996). A taxonomy and theory of mental models. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 40th Annual Meeting (pp. 164–168). Santa Monica, CA: SAGE Publications.
129.
MorenoR. E.MayerR. E. (2000). Engaging students in active learning: The case for personalized multimedia messages. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 724–733.
130.
MoserE.MoserM.AndersonP. (1993). Spatial learning impairment parallels the magnitude of dorsal hippocampal lesions but is hardly present following ventral lesions. Journal of Neuroscience, 13, 3916–3925.
131.
MouW.McNamaraT. P. (2002). Intrinsic frames of reference in spatial memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 162–170.
132.
National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). (2003). National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) safety recommendation, A-03–55 and −56. Washington, DC: Author.
133.
NewcombeN.LibenL. S. (1982). Barrier effects in the cognitive maps of children and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 34, 46–58.
134.
NewmanE. L.CaplanJ. B.KirscehnM. P.KorolevI. O.SekulerR.KahanaM. J. (2007). Learning your way around town: How virtual taxicab drivers learn to use both layout and landmark information. Cognition, 104, 231–253.
135.
NoordzijM. L.PostmaA. (2005). Categorical and metric distance information in mental representations derived from route and survey descriptions. Psychological Research, 69, 221–232.
136.
NoordzijM. L.ZuidhoekS.PostmaA. (2006). The influence of visual experience on the ability to form spatial mental models based on route and survey descriptions. Cognition, 100, 321–342.
137.
NotheggerC.WinterS.RaubalM. (2004). Selection of salient features for route directions. Spatial Cognition and Computation, 4, 113–136.
138.
NowakowskiC.GreenP.TsimhoniO. (2003, June). Common automotive navigation system usability problems and a standard test protocol to identify them. Paper presented at the 13th annual meeting of the Intelligent Transportation Society of America, Washington, DC.
139.
NowakowskiC.GreenP.UtsuiY. (2000). Navigation system destination entry: The effects of driver workload and input devices, and implications for SAE recommended practice (Tech. Rep. No. UMTRI-2000–20). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute.
140.
O'KeefeJ.NadelL. (1978). The hippocampus as a cognitive map. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
141.
OlmosO.LianC.-C.WickensC. D. (1997). Electronic map evaluation in simulated visual meterological conditions. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 7, 37–66.
142.
OlmosO.WickensC. D.ChudyA. (2000). Tactical displays for combat awareness: An examination of dimensionality and frame of reference concepts and the application of cognitive engineering. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 10, 247–271.
143.
PackardM. G.KnowltonB. J. (2002). Learning and memory functions of the basal ganglia. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 25, 563–593.
144.
PackardM. G.McGaughJ. L. (1996). Inactivation of hippocampus or caudate nucleus with lidocaine differentially affects expression of place and response learning. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 65, 65–72.
145.
PaivioA. (1986). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
146.
ParasuramanR.ByrneE. A. (2003). Automation and human performance in action. In TsangP. S.VidulichM. A. (Eds.), Principles and practice of aviation psychology (pp. 311–356). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
147.
ParushA.AhuviaS.ErevI. (2007). Degradation in spatial knowledge acquisition when using automatic navigation systems. In WinterS.DuckhamM.KulikL.KuipersB. (Eds.), Spatial information theory: Lecture notes in computer science (Vol. 4736, pp. 238–254). Berlin: Springer.
148.
PazzagliaF.DeBeniR. (2001). Strategies of processing spatial information in survey and landmark-centered individuals. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 13, 493–508.
149.
PazzagliaF.TaylorH. A. (2008). Perspective, instruction, and cognitive style in spatial representation of a virtual environment. Spatial Cognition and Computation, 7, 349–364.
150.
PeeckJ. (1994). Enhancing graphic-effects in instructional texts: Influences of learning activities. In SchnotzW.KulhavyR. W. (Eds.), Comprehension of graphics: Advances in psychology (pp. 291–302). Amsterdam: North-Holland/Elsevier Science.
151.
PerrigW.KintschW. (1985). Propositional and situational representations of text. Journal of Memory and Language, 24, 503–518.
152.
PortugaliY. (1993). Implicate relations: Society and space in the Israeli-Palenstinian conflict. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer.
153.
RaubalM.WinterS. (2002). Enriching wayfinding instructions with local landmarks. In EgenhoferM. J.MarkD. M. (Eds.), Geographic information science 2002: Lecture notes in computer science (Vol. 2478, pp. 243–259). Berlin: Springer.
RiveraC.CaoC. G. L. (2005). Toward improved communication in laparoscopic surgery: Accounting for multiple frames of reference and mental rotations. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 49th Annual Meeting (pp. 999–1003). Santa Monica, CA: SAGE Publications.
156.
RobinsonA. H.SaleR. D.MorrisonJ. L.MuehrekeP. C. (1984). Elements of cartography. New York: Wiley.
157.
RuddleR.PayneS. J.JonesD. M. (1999). The effects of maps on navigation and search strategies in very large-scale virtual environments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 5, 54–75.
158.
SadallaE. K.BurroughsW. J.StaplinL. J. (1980). Reference points in spatial cognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 5, 516–528.
159.
SadallaE. K.MontelloD. R. (1989). Remembering changes in direction. Environment and Behavior, 21, 346–363.
160.
SaundersB. P.BellG. D.WilliamsC. B.BladenJ. S.AndersonA. P. (1995). First clinical results with a real-time electronic imager as an aid to colonoscopy. Gut, 36, 913–917.
161.
SchneiderL. F.TaylorH. A. (1999). How do you get there from here? Mental representations of route descriptions. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13, 415–441.
162.
SchoberM. F.ConradF. G. (1997). Does conversational interviewing reduce survey measurement error? Public Opinion Quarterly, 61, 576–602.
ShahS. G.SaundersB. P.BrookerJ. C.WilliamsC. B. (2000). Magnetic imaging of colonoscopy: An audit of looping, accuracy and ancillary maneuvers. Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, 52, 1–8.
165.
SheltonA. L.McNamaraT. P. (2004). Orientation and perspective dependence in route and survey learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, 158–170.
166.
ShepardR. N.HurwitzZ. (1984). Upward direction, mental rotation, and discrimination of left and right turns in maps. Cognition, 18, 161–193.
167.
ShneidermanB. (1996). The eyes have it: A task by data type taxonomy for information visualizations. In Proceedings of the IEEE Visual Languages Conference (pp. 336–343). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE.
168.
ShollM. J. (1987). Cognitive maps as orienting schemata. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 615–628.
169.
SiegelA. W.WhiteS. H. (1975). The development of spatial representations of large-scale environments. In ReeseH. W. (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 10, pp. 9–55). New York: Academic Press.
170.
SlameckaN. J.GrafP. (1978). The generation effect: Delineation of a phenomenon. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4, 592–604.
171.
SmithR. S.MurchieG. S. (1991). The army special operations aircraft integrated avionics subsystem: An operational perspective. In Proceedings of the IEEE/AIAA Digital Avionics Systems Conference (pp. 533–538). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE.
172.
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). (2000). SAE draft recommended practice: Navigation and route guidance function accessibility while driving. Warrendale, PA: Author.
173.
SpiersH. J.MaguireE. A. (2006). Thoughts, behavior, and brain dynamics during navigation in the real world. NeuroImage, 31, 1826–1840.
174.
StellJ. G.WorboysM. F. (1999). Generalizing graphs using amalgamation and selection. In GütingR. H.PapadiasD.LochovskyF. (Eds.), Advances in spatial databases—6th international symposium: Lecture notes in computer science (Vol. 1651, pp. 19–32). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
StevensA.deLanceyA.DavisonA.AllenP.QuimbyA. (1999). A safety checklist for the assessment of in-vehicle information systems (Project Rep. No. SE/589/99). Berkshire, UK: Transportation Research Laboratory.
177.
SwellerJ. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12, 257–285.
178.
TanD. S.GergleD.ScupelliP. G.PauschR. (2003). With similar visual angles, larger displays improve spatial performance. In Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computer Systems (CHI 2003, pp. 217–224). New York: ACM Press.
179.
TanD. S.GergleD.ScupelliP. G.PauschR. (2004). Physically large displays improve path integration in 3D virtual navigation tasks. In Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computer Systems (CHI 2004, pp. 439–446). New York: ACM Press.
180.
TaylorH. A. (2005). Mapping the understanding of understanding maps. In ShahP.MiyakeA. (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of visuospatial thinking (pp. 295–333). New York: Cambridge University Press.
181.
TaylorH. A.NaylorS. J.ChechileN. A. (1999). Goal-specific influences on the representation of spatial perspective. Memory & Cognition, 27, 309–319.
182.
TaylorH. A.TverskyB. (1992). Spatial mental models derived from survey and route descriptions. Journal of Memory and Language, 31, 261–292.
183.
ThorndikeE. L. (1903). Educational psychology. New York: Lemcke & Buechner.
184.
ThorndikeE. L., (1913). The laws of learning in animals. In ThorndikeE. L. (Ed.), Educational psychology: The psychology of learning (Vol. 2, pp. 6–16). New York: Teachers College Press.
185.
ThorndykeP. W. (1981). Distance estimation from cognitive maps. Cognitive Psychology, 13, 526–550.
186.
ThorndykeP. W.Hayes-RothB. (1982). Differences in spatial knowledge acquired from maps and navigation. Cognitive Psychology, 14, 560–589.
187.
TlaukaM.StantonD.McKennaF. P. (2000). Dual displays. Ergonomics, 43, 764–770.
188.
TolmanE. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review, 55, 189–208.
189.
TolmanE. C.RitchieB. F.KalishD. (1946). Studies in spatial learning: Orientation and short-cut. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 36(3), 221–229.
190.
TomA.DenisM. (2003). Referring to landmark or street information in route directions: What difference does it make? In KuhnW.WorboysM. F.TimpfS. (Eds.), Spatial information theory: Foundations of geographic information science (pp. 384–397). Berlin: Springer.
191.
TomA.DenisM. (2004). Language and spatial cognition: Comparing the roles of landmarks and street names in route instructions. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18, 1213–1230.
192.
TomkoM.WinterS. (2006). Initial entity identification for granular route directions. In KainzW.RiedlA.ElmesG. (Eds.), Progress in spatial data handling (pp. 43–60). Secaucus, NJ: Springer.
193.
TverskyB. (1991). Spatial mental models. In BowerG. H. (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (pp. 109–145). New York: Academic Press.
194.
TverskyB. (1993). Cognitive maps, cognitive collages, and spatial mental models. In FrankA. U.CampariI. (Eds.), COSIT ′93: Lecture notes in computer science (Vol. 716, pp. 14–24). Berlin: Springer.
195.
TverskyB. (2000a). Levels and structure of cognitive mapping. In KitchinR.FreundschuhS. M. (Eds.), Cognitive mapping: Past, present, and future (pp. 24–43). London: Routledge.
196.
TverskyB. (2000b). Remembering spaces. In TulvingE.CraikI. M. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of memory (pp. 363–378). New York: Oxford University Press.
197.
TverskyB. (2005). Functional significance of visuospatial representations. In ShahP.MiyakeA. (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of visuospatial thinking (pp. 1–34). New York: Cambridge University Press.
198.
UhlarikJ.ComerfordD. A. (2002). Review of situation awareness literature relevant to pilot surveillance functions. Washington, DC: Federal Aviation Administration.
199.
VallortigaraG.FeruglioM.SovranoV. A. (2005). Reorientation by geometric and landmark information in environments of different size. Developmental Science, 8, 393–401.
200.
van AsselenM.FiritschyE.PostmaA. (2006). The influence of intentional and incidental learning on acquiring spatial knowledge during navigation. Psychological Research, 70, 151–156.
201.
van ErpJ. B. F. (2001). Tactile navigation display. In BrewsterS.Murray-SmithR. (Eds.), Haptic human-computer interaction: Lecture notes in computer science (Vol. 2058, pp. 165–173). Berlin: Springer.
202.
van ErpJ. B. F.van VeenH. A. H. C.JansenC.DobbinsT. (2005). Waypoint navigation with a vibrotactile waist belt. ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, 2, 106–117.
203.
van DijkT. A.KintschW. (1983). Strategies of discourse comprehension. New York: Academic Press.
204.
WangR. F.SpelkeE. S. (2000). Updating egocentric representations in human navigation. Cognition, 77, 215–250.
205.
WeissensteinerE.WinterS. (2004). Landmarks in the communication of route directions. In EgenhoferM.MillerH.FreksaC. (Eds.), Geographic information science 2004: Lecture notes in computer science (Vol. 3234, pp. 313–326). Berlin: Springer.
206.
WetherellA. (1979). Short-term memory for verbal and graphic route information. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 23rd Annual Meeting (pp. 464–468). Santa Monica, CA: SAGE Publications.
207.
WickensC. D. (1999). Cognitive factors in aviation. In DursoF. T. (Ed.), Handbook of applied cognition (pp. 247–282). New York: Wiley.
208.
WickensC. D. (2000). The trade-off of design for routine and unexpected performance: Implications of situation awareness. In EndsleyM. R.GarlandD. J. (Eds.), Situation awareness and measurement (pp. 211–225). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
209.
WickensC. D. (2002). Situation awareness and workload in aviation. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11(4), 128–133.
210.
WickensC. D. (2003). Aviation displays. In TsangP. S.VidulichM. A. (Eds.), Principles and practice of aviation psychology: Human factors in transportation (pp. 147–200). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
211.
WickensC. D.CarswellC. M. (1995). The proximity compatibility principle: Its psychological foundation and relevance to display design. Human Factors, 37, 473–494.
212.
WickensC. D.PrevettT. (1995). Exploring the dimensions of egocentricity in aircraft navigation displays: Influences on local guidance and global situation awareness. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 1, 110–135.
213.
WickensC. D.VerversP. M.FaddenS. (2004). Head-up displays. In HarrisD. (Ed.), Human factors for civil flight deck design (pp. 103–140). Brookfield, VT: Ashgate.
214.
WickensC. D.VincowM.YehM. (2005). Design applications of visual spatial thinking: The importance of frame of reference. In ShahP.MiyakeA. (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of visuospatial thinking (pp. 383–425). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
215.
WienerE. L. (1989). Human factors of advanced technology (“glass cockpit”) transport aircraft. Moffett Field, CA: NASA Ames Research Center.
216.
WillsT. W.SoraciS. A.ChechileR. A.TaylorH. A. (2000). “Aha” effects in the generation of pictures. Memory & Cognition, 28, 939–948.
217.
WilsonS. A. K. (1912). An experimental research into the anatomy of the corpus striatum. Brain, 36, 427–492.
218.
YehM.MerloJ.WickensC. D.BrandenburgD. L. (2003). Head-up vs. head-down: The costs of imprecision, unreliability, and visual clutter on cue effectiveness for display signaling. Human Factors, 45, 390–407.
219.
YehM.WickensC. D.SeagullF. J. (1999). Target cueing in visual search: The effects of conformality and display location on the allocation of visual attention. Human Factors, 41, 524–542.
