What is a Good Plan? Cultural Variations in Expert Planners'Concepts of Plan Quality

Abstract

This article presents the results of a field research study examining commonalities and differences between American and British operational planners' mental models of planning. We conducted cultural network analysis interviews with 14 experienced operational planners in the United States and the United Kingdom. Our results demonstrate the existence of fundamental differences between the ways American and British expert planners conceive of a high-quality plan. Our results revealed that the American planners' model focused on specification of action to achieve synchronization, providing little autonomy at the level of execution, and included the belief that increasing contingencies reduces risk. The British planners' model stressed the internal coherence of the plan to support shared situational awareness and thereby flexibility at the level of execution. The British model also emphasized the belief that reducing the number of assumptions decreases risk. Overall, the American ideal plan serves a controlling function, whereas the British ideal plan supports an enabling function. Interestingly, both the U.S. and UK planners viewed the other's ideal plan as riskier than their own. The implications of cultural models of plans and planning are described for establishing performance measures and designing systems to support multinational planning teams.