In two experiments we evaluated different techniques for flight rehearsal to develop navigational knowledge about a region. In Experiment 1 different groups of pilots studied a map of a region, actively flew an IRIS simulator through the same region, or passively viewed the same dynamic screen as flown by the active participants. The latter two groups were subdivided into those that trained with high and low levels of scene detail. All pilots then transferred to a high-image-fidelity simulation to fly the same route. The transfer results indicated no effect of scene detail and that the active group performed best, the passive group worst, and the map group at an intermediate level. In Experiment 2 the workload of training was increased, and half the participants were required to train with a north-up map. These changes degraded the transfer performance of the active training group relative to the other two. The implications of the results for workload during rehearsal flights and the kinds of geographical knowledge acquired are discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Antunano, M. J., Mohler, S. R., and Gosbee, J. W. (1989). Geographic disorientation: Approaching and landing at the wrong airport. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine,55, 996–1004.
2.
Aretz, A. J. (1991). The design of electronic map displays. Human Factors,33, 85–101.
3.
Cowan, N. (1988). Evolving conceptions of memory storage, electronic storage, selective attention, and their mutual constraints within the human information processing system.. Psychological Bulletin,104(2), 163–191.
4.
Durlach, N. I., and Mavor, A. (Eds.) (1995). Virtual reality: Scientific and technological challenges.. Washington, DC: National Academy.
5.
Foreman, N., Foreman, D., Cummings, A., and Owens, S. (1990). Locomotion, active choice, and spatial memory in children. Journal of General Psychology,117, 215–232.
6.
Gale, N., Golledge, R. G., Pellegrino, J. W., and Doherty, S. (1990). The acquisition and integration of route knowledge in an unfamiliar neighborhood. Journal of Environmental Psychology,10, 3–25.
7.
Kleiss, J. A., Curry, D. G., and Hubbard, D. C. (1988). Effect of three-dimensional object type and density in simulated low-level flight. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting (pp. 1299–1303). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
8.
Lintern, G. (1991). An information perspective on skill transfer in human-machine systems. Human Factors,33, 251–266.
9.
Lintern, G., and Liu, Y. T. (1991). Explicit and implicit horizons for simulated landing approaches. Human Factors,33, 401–417.
10.
Lintern, G., Sheppard, D. J., Parker, D. L, Yates, K. E., and Nolan, M. D. (1989). Simulator design and instructional features for air-to-ground attack: A transfer study. Human Factors,31, 87–89.
11.
Lintern, G., and Wickens, C. D. (1991). Issues for acquisition in transfer of timesharing and dual-task skills. In D. Damos, (Ed.), Multiple task performance (pp. 123–128. London: Taylor & Francis.
12.
May, M., Peruch, P., and Savoyant, A. (1995). Navigating in a virtual environment with map-acquired knowledge: Encoding and alignment effects. Ecological Psychology,7, 21–36.
13.
Moray, N. (1986). Monitoring behavior and supervisory control. In K. R. Boff, L. Kaufman, and J. P. Thomas, (Eds.), Handbook of perception and performance (Vol. 2, pp. 40–1–40–51). New York: Wiley.
14.
Rheingold, H. (1991). Virtual reality.. New York: Summit Books.
15.
Spradlin, R. E. (1987). Modern air transport flight deck design. Displays,8, 171–182.
16.
Thorndyke, P. W. (1980, December). Performance models for spatial and locational cognition (Tech. Report R-2676-ONR). Washington, DC: Rand.
17.
Thorndyke, P. W., and Hayes-Roth, B. (1982). Differences in spatial knowledge acquired from maps and navigation. Cognitive Psychology,14, 560–589.
18.
von Wright, J. M. (1957). A note on the role of "guidance" in learning. British Journal of Psychology,48, 133–137.
19.
Westra, D. P. (1982). Investigation of simulator design features for carrier landing: II. In-simulator transfer of training (NAVTRAEQUIPCEN 81–0105–1). Orlando, FL: Naval Training Equipment Center.
20.
Westra, D. P. (1983). Simulator design features for air-to-ground bombing: I. Performance experiment I(NAVTRAEQUIPCEN 81-C-0105–4). Orlando, FL: Naval Training Equipment Center.
21.
Westra, D. P., Lintern, G., Sheppard, D. J., Thomley, K, E., Mauk, R., Wightman, D. C., and Chambers, S. (1986). Simulator design and instruction features for carrier landing: A field transfer study (NAVTRASYSCEN 85-C-0044–2). Orlando, FL: Naval Training Systems Center.
22.
Wickens, C. D. (1986). The effects of control dynamics on performance. In K. R. Boff, L. Kaufman, and J. P. Thomas, (Eds.), Handbook of perception and performance (Vol. 2. pp. 39–1–39–60). New York: Wiley.
23.
Wickens, C. D. (1992). Virtual reality and education. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics (pp. 842–847). New York: Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers.
24.
Wickens, C. D., and Baker, P. (1995). Cognitive issues in virtual reality. In W. Barfield and T. Furness, (Eds.), Virtual reality (pp. 515–541. New York: Oxford University Press.
25.
Wickens, C. D., Liang, C. C., Prevett, T., and Olmos, O. (in press). Egocentric and exocentric displays for terminal area navigation. International Journal of Aviation Psychology.
26.
Williams, H. P., Tham, M., and Wickens, C. D. (1992). Resource management and geographic disorientation in aviation incidents: A review of the ASRS data base (Tech. Report ARL-92–3/NASA-92–2). Savoy: University of Illinois Institute of Aviation, Aviation Research Laboratory.
27.
Williams, H. P., and Wickens, C. D. (1991). Electronic map interpretation in a dual-task context (Tech. Report ARL-912/NASA-91–2). Savoy: University of Illinois Institute of Aviation, Aviation Research Laboratory.
28.
Yeh, Y. Y., and Wickens, C. D. (1988). Dissociation of performance and subjective measures of workload. Human Factors,30, 111–120.
