Situation awareness has long been recognized as an important variable in aviation performance. Research to date has focused on identifying characteristics of situation awareness for individuals, not on the behaviors and processes associated with team situation awareness. The purpose of this review is to delineate and identify characteristics of team situation awareness. In addition, implications are discussed and research questions are outlined that target the measurement and training of situation awareness in teams.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Baker, C. V., Salas, E., Cannon-Bowers, J. A., and Spector, P. (1992, April). The effects of inter-positional uncertainty and workload on teamwork and task performance.Paper presented at the Seventh Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Montreal, Canada.
2.
Baker, D. P., and Salas, E. (1992). Principles for measuring teamwork skills. Human Factors,34, 469–475.
3.
Bolman, L. (1979). Aviation accidents and the "theory of the situation.. In G. E. Cooper, M. D. White, and J. K. Lauber, (Eds.), Resource management on the flight deck: Proceedings of a NASA/industry workshop (pp. 31–58. Moffett Field, CA: NASA Ames Research Center.
4.
Brannick, M. T., Prince, A., Prince, C., and Salas, E. (in press). The measurement of team process. Human Factors.
5.
Briggs, G. E., and Naylor, J. C. (1964). Experiments on team training in a CIC-type environment (NAVTRADEVCEN Tech. Report 1327–1). Port Washington, NY: U.S. Naval Training Device Center.
6.
Bunecke, J. L., Povenmire, H. K., Rockway, M. R., and Patton, M. W. (1990). The situational awareness component of cockpit resource management. In Proceedings of Psychology in the Department of Defense 12th Symposium (pp. 259–263). Colorado Springs, CO: U.S. Air Force Academy, Department of Behavioral Sciences and Leadership.
7.
Cannon-Bowers, J. A., and Salas, E. (1990, April). Cognitive psychology and team training: Shared mental models in complex systems.Paper presented at the Fifth Annual Meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Miami, FL.
8.
Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Salas, E., and Converse, S. A. (1993). Shared mental models in expert team decision making. In N. J. Castellan, Jr. (Ed.), Current issues in individual and group decision making (pp. 221–246. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
9.
Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Tannenbaum, S. I., Salas, E., and Volpe, C. E. (1995). Defining competencies and establishing team training requirements. In R. Guzzo, E. Salas, and associates (Eds.), Team effectiveness and decision making in organizations (pp. 333–380. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
10.
Converse, S. A., Cannon-Bowers, J. A., and Salas, E. (1991). Team member shared mental models: A theory and some methodological issues. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting (pp. 1417–1421). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
11.
Dominguez, C. (1994, June). Can SA be defined? In M. Vidulich, C. Dominguez, E. Vogel, and G. Mcmillan, (Eds.), Situation awareness: Papers and annotated bibliography (pp. 5–15; Report AL/CF-TR-1994–0085). Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH: Air Force Systems Command.
12.
Dyer, J. L. (1984). Team research and team training: A state-of-the-art review. In F. A. Muckler (Ed.), Human Factors Review: 1984 (pp. 285–323). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
13.
Endsley, M. R. (1988). Design and evaluation for situation awareness enhancement. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting (pp. 97–101). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
14.
Endsley, M. R. (1989, November). Pilot situation awareness: The challenges for the training community.Paper presented at the Interservice/Industry Training Systems Conference (I/ITSC), Ft. Worth, TX.
15.
Endsley, M. R. (1990). Predictive utility of an objective measure of situational awareness. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting (pp. 41–45). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
16.
Endsley, M. R. (1993). A survey of situation awareness requirements in air-to-air combat fighters. International Journal of Aviation Psychology,3, 157–168.
17.
Flach, J. M. (1994). Situation awareness: The emperor's new clothes. In Proceedings of the 1st Conference on Human Performance in Complex Automated Systems (pp. 241–248). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
18.
Foushee, H. C. (1984). Dyads and tryads at 35,000 feet: Factors affecting group process and aircrew performance. American Psychologist,39, 885–893.
19.
Fowlkes, J. E., Lane, N. E., Salas, E., Oser, R. L., and Prince, C. (1992, November). TARGETs for aircrew coordination training.Paper presented at the 14th Interservice/Industry Training Systems Conference (I/ITSC), San Antonio, TX.
20.
Fracker, M. L. (1988). A theory of situational assessment: Implications for measuring situation assessment. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting (pp. 102–106). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
21.
Fracker, M. L. (1989). Attention allocation in situational assessment. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 33rd Annual Meeting (pp. 1396–1400). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
22.
Fracker, M. L. (1991). Measures of situation awareness: Review and future directions (Tech. Report AL-TR-1991–0128). Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH: Air Force Systems Command.
23.
Glickman, A. S., Zimmer, S., Montero, R. C., Guerette, P. J., Campbell, W. J., Morgan, B. B., and Salas, E. (1987). The evolution of teamwork skills: An empirical assessment with implications for training (Tech. Report 87–016). Orlando, FL: Naval Training Systems Center, Human Factors Division.
24.
Gravelle, M. D. (1991, Spring). Chief scientist report special: Technical inquiry on situational awareness. CSERIAC Gateway,2, 14.
25.
Hartel, C. E. J., Smith, K., and Prince, C. (1991). Defining aircrew coordination: Searching mishaps for meaning.Paper presented at the Sixth International Symposium on Aviation Psychology, Columbus, OH.
26.
Harwood, K., Barnett, B., and Wickens, C. (1988). Situational awareness: A conceptual and methodological framework. In Proceedings of the 11th Symposium of Psychology in the Department of Defense (pp. 316–320). Colorado Springs, CO: U.S. Air Force Academy, Department of Behavioral Sciences and Leadership.
27.
Helmreich, R. L., and Foushee, H. C. (1993). Why crew resource management? Empirical and theoretical bases of human factors training in aviation. In E. L. Wiener, B. G. Kanki, and R. C. Helmreich, (Eds.), Cockpit resource management (pp. 3–45. San Diego, CA: Academic.
28.
Helmreich, R. L., Wiener, E. L., and Kanki, B. G. (1993). The future of crew resource management in the cockpit and elsewhere. In E. L. Wiener, B. G. Kanki, and R. C. Helmreich, (Eds.), Cockpit resource management (pp. 479–501. San Diego, CA: Academic.
29.
Helmreich, R. L., Wilhelm, J. A., Kello, J. E., Taggart, W. R., and Butler, R. E. (1991). Reinforcing and evaluating crew resource management: Evaluator/LOS instructor reference manual (NASA/University of Texas Technical Manual 90–2). Austin: University of Texas.
30.
Hollister, M. (Ed.). (1986). Situational awareness. In Improved guidance and control automation at the man-machine interface (pp. 60–88; AGARD AR228). Neuilly-Sur-Seine, France: NATO Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development.
31.
Kass, S. J., Herschler, D. A., and Companion, M. A. (1990). Are they shooting at me? An approach to training situational awareness. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting (pp. 1352–1356). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
32.
McIntyre, R. M., and Salas, E. (1995). Measuring and managing for team performance: Emerging principles from complex environments. In R. Guzzo and E. Salas, (Eds.), Team effectiveness and decision making in organizations (pp. 9–45. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
33.
Morgan, B. B., Glickman, A. S., Woodward, E. A., Blaiwes, A. S., and Salas, E. (1986). Measurement of team behaviors in a navy environment (Tech. Report NTSC TR-86–014). Orlando, FL: Naval Training Systems Center.
34.
Muchinsky, P. M. (1990). Psychology applied to work.. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
35.
Neisser, U. (1976). Cognition and reality: Principles and implications of cognitive psychology.San Francisco: Freeman.
36.
Orasanu, J. (1990). Shared mental models and crew decision making (Tech. Report 46). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University, Cognitive Sciences Laboratory.
37.
Orasanu, J., and Salas, E. (1993). Team decision making in complex environments. In G. Klein, J. Orasanu, and R. Calderwood, (Eds.), Decision making in action: Models and methods (pp. 327–345. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
38.
Oser, R. L., Prince, C., and Morgan, B. B. (1990, October). Difference in aircrew communication content as a function of flight requirement: Implications for operational aircrew training.Poster presented at the 34th Annual Meeting of the Human Factors Society, Orlando, FL.
39.
Pew, R. (1994). An introduction to the concept of situation awareness. In R. D. Gilson, D. J. Garland, and J. M. Koonce, (Eds.), Situational awareness in complex systems (pp. 17–23. Daytona Beach, FL: Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Press.
40.
Prince, C., Chidester, T. R., Bowers, C. A., and Cannon-Bowers, J. A. (1992). Aircrew coordination: Achieving teamwork in the cockpit. In R. Swezey and E. Salas, (Eds.), Teams: Their training and performance (pp. 329–353. New York: Ablex.
41.
Prince, C., and Salas, E. (1989). Aircrew performance, coordination, and skill development. In D. Daniels, E. Salas, and D. M. Kotick, (Eds.), Independent research and independent exploratory development (IR/IED) programs: Annual report FY88 (Tech. Report NTSC 89–009). Orlando, FL: Naval Training Systems Center.
42.
Prince, C., and Salas, E. (1993). Training and research for teamwork in the military aircrew. In E. L. Wiener, B. G. Kanki, and R. C. Helmreich, (Eds.), Cockpit resource management (pp. 337–366. San Diego, CA: Academic.
43.
Robertson, M. M., and Endsley, M. (1994, March). The role of crew resource management (CRM) in achieving team situational awareness.Paper presented at the Western European Association for Aviation Psychology 21st Conference, Dublin, Ireland.
44.
Salas, E., Blaiwes, A. S., Reynolds, R. E., Glickman, A. S., and Morgan, B. B. (1985). Teamwork for team training: New directions. In Proceedings of the 7th Interservice/lndustry Training Equipment Conference and Exhibition (pp. 400–406). Orlando, FL: American Defense Preparedness Association.
45.
Salas, E., Dickinson, T. L., Converse, S., and Tannenbaum, S. I. (1992). Toward an understanding of team performance and training. In R. W. Swezey and E. Salas, (Eds.), Teams: Their training and performance (pp. 3–29. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
46.
Sarter, N. B., and Woods, D. D. (1991). Situation awareness: A critical but ill-defined phenomenon. International Journal of Aviation Psychology,1, 45–57.
47.
Schvaneveldt, R. W. (1990). Pathfinder associative networks: Studies in knowledge organization.. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
48.
Schwartz, D. (1990). Training for situational awareness.. Houston, TX: Flight Safety International.
49.
Shrestha, L. B., Prince, C., Baker, D. P., and Salas, E. (1995). Understanding situation awareness: Concepts, methods, and training. In W. B. Rouse (Ed.), Human/technology interaction in complex systems (Vol. 7, pp. 45–83). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
50.
Smith, K., and Salas, E. (1991, March). Training assertiveness: The importance of active participation.Paper presented at the 37th Annual Meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, New Orleans, LA.
51.
Stout, R., Cannon-Bowers, J. A., and Salas, E. (1994). The role of shared mental models in developing shared situational awareness. In R. D. Gilson, D. J. Garland, and J. M. Koonce, (Eds.), Situational awareness in complex systems (pp. 297–304. Daytona Beach, FL: Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Press.
52.
Stout, R., Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Salas, E., and Morgan, B. B. (1990). Does crew coordination impact performance. In Proceedings of the 34th Annual Meeting of the Human Factors Society (pp. 1382–1386). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
53.
Tenney, Y. J., Adams, M. J., Pew, R. W., Huggins, A. W. F., and Rogers, W. H. (1992). A principled approach to the measurement of situation awareness in commercial aviation (NASA Contractor Report 4451). Hampton, VA: NASA-Langley Research Center.
54.
Travillian, K. K., Volpe, C. E., Cannon-Bowers, J. A., and Salas, E. (1993). Cross-training highly interdependent teams: Effects of team processes on team performance. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 37th Annual Meeting (pp. 1243–1247). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
55.
Waag, W., and Bell, H. H. (1994, June). A study of situation assessment and decision making in skilled fighter pilots.Paper presented at the Second Conference on Naturalistic Decision Making, Dayton, OH.
56.
Wellens, A. R. (1993). Group situation awareness and distributed decision making from military to civilian applications. In N. J. Castellan, Jr. (Ed.), Individual and group decision making: Current issues (pp. 267–291. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
