For multiple degree-of-freedom (DOF) systems, it is important to determine how accurately operators can control each DOF and what influence perceptual, information processing, and psychomotor components have on performance. Sixteen right-handed male students participated in 2 experiments: 1 involving positioning and 1 involving tracking with 3 translational DOFs. To separate perceptual and psychomotor effects, we used 2 control-display mappings that differed in the coupling of vertical and depth dimensions to the up-down and fore-aft control axes. We observed information processing effects in the positioning task: Initial error correction on the vertical dimension lagged in time behind the horizontal dimension. The depth dimension error correction lagged behind both, which was ascribed to the poorer perceptual information. We observed this perceptual effect also in the tracking experiment: Tracking error along the depth dimension was 3.8 times larger than along the other dimensions. Motor effects were also present, with tracking errors along the up-down axis of the hand controller being 1.1 times larger than along the fore-aft axis. These results indicate that all 3 components contribute to control performance. Actual applications of this research include interface design for remote control and virtual reality.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Anastasi, A. (1958). Differential psychology: Individual and group differences in behavior. New York: Macmillan.
2.
Bejczy, A. K. (1980). Sensors, controls, and man-machine interface for advanced teleoperation. Science, 208, 4450, 1327–1335.
3.
Blakemore, M. R., & Snowden, R. J. (2000). Textured backgrounds alter perceived speed. Vision Research, 40, 629–638.
4.
Bonnet, C. (1984). Discrimination of velocities and mechanisms of motion perception. Perception, 13, 275–282.
5.
Buïel, E. F. T., & Breedveld, P. (1995). A laboratory evaluation of four control methods for space manipulator positioning tasks. In Proceedings of the 6th International Federation on Automatic Control Symposium on Analysis, Design and Evaluation of Man-Machine Systems (pp. 233–238). Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
6.
Chernikoff, R., & LeMay, M. (1963). Effect of various display-control configurations on tracking with identical and different coordinate dynamics. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66, 95–99.
7.
Fracker, M. L., & Wickens, C. D. (1989). Resources, confusions, and compatibility in dual-axis tracking: Displays, controls and dynamics. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 15, 80–96.
8.
Gallimore, J. J., & Brown, M. E. (1993). Visualization of 3-D computer-aided design objects. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 5(4), 361–382.
9.
Hallbeck, M. S., Kamal, A. H., & Harmon, P. E. (1992). The effects of forearm posture, wrist posture, gender, and hand on three peak pinch force types. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting (pp. 801–805). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
10.
Hazelton, F. T., Smidt, G. L., Flatt, A. E., & Stephens, R. I. (1975). The influence of wrist position on the force produced by the finger flexors. Journal of Biomechanics, 8, 301–306.
11.
Hendrix, C., & Barfield, W. (1995). Relationship between monocular and binocular depth cues for judgements of spatial information and spatial instrument design. Displays, 16(3), 103–113.
12.
Kim, W. S., Tendick, F., & Stark, L. (1991). Visual enhancements in pick-and-place tasks: Human operators controlling a simulated cylindrical manipulator. In S. R. Ellis, M. K. Kaiser, & A. C. Grunwald (Eds.), Pictorial communication in virtual and real environments (pp. 265–282). London: Taylor & Francis.
13.
Korteling, J. E., Oving, A. B., Van Emmerik, M. L., & Van Erp, J. B. F. (1997). Interference between 6 degrees of freedom in a 3D handcontroller (Report No. TM-97-B010). Soesterberg, Netherlands: TNO Human Factors Research Institute.
14.
Masliah, M. R., & Milgram, P. (2000). Measuring the allocation of control in a 6 degree-of-freedom docking experiment. In Proceedings of CHI 2000 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 25–32). New York: Association for Computing Machinery.
15.
Massimino, M. J., Sheridan, T. B., & Roseborough, J. B. (1989). One handed tracking in six degrees of freedom. In Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (pp. 498–503). New York: IEEE.
16.
McKinnon, G. M., & Kruk, R. V. (1991). Multi-axis control in telemanipulation and vehicle guidance. In S. R. Ellis, M. K. Kaiser, & A. C. Grunwald (Eds.), Pictorial communication in virtual and real environments (pp. 247–264). London: Taylor & Francis.
17.
Regan, J. J. (1960). Tracking performance related to display-control configuration. Journal of Applied Psychology, 44, 310–314.
18.
Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977). Controlled and automatic information processing: I. Detection, search and attention. Psychological Review, 84, 1–66.
19.
Sollenberger, R. L., & Milgram, P. (1993). Effects of stereoscopic and rotational displays in a three-dimensional path-tracing task. Human Factors, 35, 483–499.
20.
Spragg, S. D. S., Finck, A., & Smith, S. (1959). Performance on a two-dimensional following tracking task with miniature stick control, as a function of control-display movement relationships. Journal of Psychology, 48, 247–254.
21.
Van Erp, J. B.F., Oving, A. B., & Korteling, J. E. (1996). Control-display mapping in a 3D positioning task (Report No. TM-96-B017). Soesterberg, Netherlands: TNO Human Factors Research Institute.
22.
Worringham, C. J., & Beringer, D. B. (1998). Directional stimulus-response compatibility: A test of three alternative principles. Ergonomics, 41, 864–880.
23.
Zhai, S., Buxton, W., & Milgram, P. (1994). The “silk cursor”: Investigating transparency for 3D target acquisition. In Proceedings of CHI 1994 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 459–464). New York: Association for Computing Machinery.
24.
Zhai, S., & Milgram, P. (1993). Human performance evaluation of isometric and elastic rate controllers in a 6 DOF tracking task. In Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering (Vol. 2057, pp. 130–141). Bellingham, WA: International Society for Optical Engineering.
25.
Zhai, S., & Milgram, P. (1994). Asymmetrical spatial accuracy in 3D tracking. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 38th Annual Meeting (pp. 245–249). Santa Monica: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
26.
Zhai, S., Milgram, P., & Rastogi, A. (1997). Anisotropic human performance in six degree-of-freedom tracking: An evaluation of three-dimensional display and control interfaces. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics --- Part A: Systems and Humans, 27(4), 518–528.
