The relationship between the semantics of words and the acoustics of the way they are spoken is explored. Actors spoke warning signal words in urgent, nonurgent and monotone style, and participants rated the urgency of the words. Results showed effects for signal word and style of presentation. Acoustic analysis showed that the urgent words were spoken at higher frequency with a broader pitch range and were louder than the nonurgent or monotone words. These acoustic differences were used to synthesize artificial versions of signal words in urgent and nonurgent formats. The urgent words were rated as more urgent than the nonurgent words, a finding attributable to their differing acoustics. Within each speaking style the words were acoustically the same, yet effects for signal word were found, suggesting that semantics is also important in urgency perception. This research has implications for the design and implementation of speech warning systems, particularly those in which urgency mapping is required.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Bacharowski, J., & Owren, M. J. (1995). Vocal expression of emotion: Acoustic properties of speech are associated with emotional intensity and context. Psychological Science, 6(4), 619–623.
2.
Banse, R., & Scherer, K. R. (1996). Acoustic profiles in vocal emotion expression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(1), 614–636.
3.
Barzegar, R. S., & Wogalter, M. S. (1998). Effects of auditorilypresented warning signal words on intended carefulness. In M. A. Hanson (Ed.), Contemporary Ergonomics 1998 (pp. 311–315). London: Taylor & Francis.
4.
Barzegar, R. S., & Wogalter, M. S. (2000). Intended carefulness ratings for voiced warning statements. Proceedings of the XIVth Triennial Congress of the International Ergonomics Association/Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 44th Annual Meeting (pp. 3-686–3-689). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
5.
Bliss, J. P., & Gilson, R. D. (1998). Emergency signal failure: Implications and recommendations. Ergonomics, 41, 57–72.
6.
Bliss, J. P., Gilson, R. D., & Deaton, J. E. (1995). Human probability matching behavior in response to alarms of varying reliability. Ergonomics, 38, 2300–2312.
7.
Braun, C. C., Sansing, L., Kennedy, R. S., & Silver, N. C. (1994). Signal words and color specifications for product warnings: An isoperformance application. Proceedings of the 38th annual conference of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (pp. 1104–1108). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
8.
Braun, C. C., & Silver, N. S. (1995). Interaction of signal word and color on warning labels: Differences in perceived hazard and behavioral compliance. Ergonomics, 38, 2207–2220.
9.
Burt, J. L., Bartolome, D. S., Burdette, S. W., & Comstock, J. R., Jr. (1995). A psychophysiological evaluation of the perceived urgency of auditory warning signals. Ergonomics, 38, 2327–2340.
10.
Davis, S. (1977, November). Acoustic analysis of voice pathology. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Speech and Hearing Association, Chicago, IL.
11.
Edworthy, J. (1997). Cognitive compatibility and warning design. International Journal of Cognitive Ergonomics, 3(10), 193–209.
12.
Edworthy, J., Clift-Matthews, W., & Crowther, M. (1998). Listeners' understanding of warning signal words. In M. A. Hanson (Ed.), Contemporary Ergonomics 1998 (pp. 316–320). London: Taylor & Francis.
13.
Edworthy, J., Loxley, S., & Dennis, I. (1991). Improving auditory warning design: Relationship between warning sound parameters and perceived urgency. Human Factors, 33, 205–231.
14.
Engen, T. (1971). Scaling methods. In J. Kling & L. Riggs (Eds.), Experimental Psychology (pp. 45–86). London: Methuen.
15.
Haas, E. C., & Casali, J. G. (1995). Perceived urgency of and response to multi-tone and frequency-modulated warning signals in broadband noise. Ergonomics, 38, 2313–2326.
16.
Haas, E. C., & Edworthy, J. (1996). Designing urgency into auditory warnings using pitch, speed and loudness. Computing and Control Engineering Journal, 7(4), 193–198.
17.
Hecker, H. L., Stevens, K. N., von Bismarck, G., & Williams, C. A. (1967). The effects of task-induced stress on speech. (Final Report No. N68-12810#). London: National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
18.
Hellier, E. J., Edworthy, J., & Dennis, I. (1993). Improving auditory warning design: Quantifying and predicting the effects of different warning parameters on perceived urgency. Human Factors, 35, 693–706.
19.
Hellier, E. J., Wright, D. B., Edworthy, J., & Newstead, S. (2000). On the stability of the arousal strength of warning signal words. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14, 577–592.
20.
Hollander, T. D., & Wogalter, M. S. (2000). Connoted hazard of voiced warning signal words: An examination of auditory components. Proceedings of the XIVth Triennial Congress of the International Ergonomics Association/Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 44th Annual Meeting (pp. 3-702–3-7055). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
21.
Momtahan, K. L. (1990). Mapping of psychoacoustic parameters to the perceived urgency of auditory warning signals. Unpublished master's thesis, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
22.
Murray, I. R., & Arnott, J. L. (1993). Toward the simulation of emotion in synthetic speech: A review of the literature on human vocal emotion. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 93, 1097–1108.
23.
Murray, I. R., & Arnott, J. L. (1995). Implementation and testing of a system for producing emotion-by-rule in synthetic speech. Speech Communication, 16, 369–390.
24.
Patterson, R. D. (1982). Guidelines for auditory warnings systems on civil aircraft. (Civil Aviation Authority paper 82017). London: Civil Aviation Authority.
25.
Scherer, K. R. (1986). Vocal affect expression: A review and a model for future research. Psychological Bulletin, 99(2), 143–165.
26.
Siegman, A. V., & Boyle, S. (1993). Voices of fear and anxiety and sadness and depression: The effects of speech rate and loudness on fear and anxiety and sadness and depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102(3), 430–437.
27.
Wogalter, M. S., Kalsher, M. J., Frederick, L. J., Magurno, A. B., & Brewster, B. M. (1998). Hazard level perceptions of warning components and configurations. International Journal of Cognitive Ergonomics, 2(1), 123–143.
28.
Wogalter, M. S., & Silver, N. C. (1990). Arousal strength of signal words. Forensic Reports, 3, 407–420.
29.
Wogalter, M. S., & Silver, N. C. (1995). Warning signal words: Connoted strength and understandability by children, elders and non-native English speakers. Ergonomics, 34, 79–89.
