The aviation community has invested great amounts of money and effort into crew resource management (CRM) training. Using D. L. Kirkpatrick's (1976) framework for evaluating training, we reviewed 58 published accounts of CRM training to determine its effectiveness within aviation. Results indicated that CRM training generally produced positive reactions, enhanced learning, and promoted desired behavioral changes. However, we cannot ascertain whether CRM has an effect on an organization's bottom line (i.e., safety). We discuss the state of the literature with regard to evaluation of CRM training programs and, as a result, call for the need to conduct systematic, multilevel evaluation efforts that will show the true effectiveness of CRM training. As many evaluations do not collect data across levels (as suggested by D. L. Kirkpatrick, 1976, and by G. M. Alliger, S. I. Tannenbaum, W. Bennett, Jr., & H. Traver, 1997), the impact of CRM cannot be truly determined; thus more and better evaluations are needed and should be demanded.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Alkov, R. A. (1991). U.S. Navy aircrew coordination training --- A progress report. In R. S. Jensen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 368–371). Columbus: Ohio State University.
2.
Alkov, R. A., & Gaynor, J. A. (1991). Attitude changes in navy/marine flight instructors following an aircrew coordination training course. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 1, 245–253.
3.
Alliger, G. M., & Janak, E. A. (1989). Kirkpatrick's levels of training criteria: Thirty years later. Personnel Psychology, 42, 331–342.
4.
Alliger, G. M., Tannenbaum, S. I., Bennett, W., Jr., & Traver, H. (1997). A meta-analysis of the relations among training criteria. Personnel Psychology, 50, 341–358.
5.
Arnold, R. L., & Jackson, D. L. (1985). Recurrent cockpit resource management training at United Airlines. In R. S. Jensen, & J. Adrion (Eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 345–351). Columbus: Ohio State University.
6.
Baker, D. P., Bauman, M., & Zalesny, M. D. (1991). Development of aircrew coordination exercises to facilitate transfer. In R. S. Jensen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 314–319). Columbus: Ohio State University.
7.
Baker, D. P., Prince, C., Shrestha, L., Oser, R., & Salas, E. (1993). Aviation computer games for crew resource management training. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 3, 143–156.
8.
Barker, J. M., Clothier, C., Woody, J. R., McKinney, E. H., & Brown, J. L. (1996, January). Crew resource management: A simulator study comparing fixed versus formed aircrews. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 67(1), 3–7.
9.
Besco, R. O. (1995). The potential contributions and scientific responsibilities of aviation psychologists. In N. Johnston, R. Fuller, & N. McDonald (Eds.), Aviation psychology: Training and selection. Proceedings of the 21st Conference of the European Association for Aviation Psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 141–148). Aldershot, England: Avebury Aviation.
10.
Besco, R. O. (1997). The need for operational validation of human relations-centered CRM training assumptions. In R. S. Jensen, & L. A. Rakovan (Eds.), Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 536–540). Columbus: Ohio State University.
11.
Besco, R. O. (1998). Crew resource management training: What to teach and how to teach it! Unpublished manuscript.
12.
Bowers, C. A., Salas, E., Prince, C., & Brannick, M. (1992). Games teams play: A method for investigating team coordination and performance. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 24, 503–506.
13.
Brannick, M. T., Prince, A., Prince, C., & Salas, E. (1995). The measurement of team process. Human Factors, 37, 641–651.
14.
Brannick, M., T., Salas, E., & Prince, C. (Eds.). (1997). Team performance assessment and measurement: Theory, methods, and applications.Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
15.
Butler, R. E. (1991). Lessons from cross-fleet/cross-airline observations: Evaluating the impact of CRM/LOFT training. In R. S. Jensen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 326–331). Columbus: Ohio State University.
16.
Butler, R. E. (1993). LOFT: Full mission simulation as crew resource management training. In E. L. Wiener, B. G., Kanki, & R. L. Helmreich (Eds.), Cockpit resource management (pp. 231–259). San Diego, CA: Academic.
17.
Byrnes, R. E., & Black, R. (1993). Developing and implementing CRM programs: The Delta experience. In E. L. Wiener, B. G. Kanki, & R. L. Helmreich (Eds.), Cockpit resource management (pp. 421–443). San Diego, CA: Academic.
18.
Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Prince, C., Salas, E., Owens, J., Morgan, B., Jr., & Gonos, G. (1989, November). Determining aircrew coordination training effectiveness. Paper presented at the 11th Inter-service/Industry Training Systems Conference, Fort Worth, TX.
19.
Chidester, T. R., Helmreich, R. L., Gregorich, S. E., & Geis, C. E. (1991). Pilot personality and crew coordination: Implications for training and selection. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 1, 25–44.
20.
Chute, R. D., & Wiener, E. L. (1995). Cockpit-cabin communication: I. A tale of two cultures. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 5, 258–276.
21.
Clark, R. E., Nielsen, R. A., & Wood, R. L. (1991). The interactive effects of cockpit resource management, domestic stress, and information processing in commercial aviation. In R. S. Jensen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 776–781). Columbus: Ohio State University.
22.
Clothier, C. C., (1991). Behavioral interactions across various aircraft types: Results of systematic observations of line operations and simulations. In R. S. Jensen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 332–337). Columbus: Ohio State University.
23.
Connolly, T. J., & Blackwell, B. B. (1987). A simulator approach to training in aeronautical decision making. In R. S. Jensen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 251–258). Columbus: Ohio State University.
24.
Diehl, A. (1991). The effectiveness of training programs for preventing aircrew "error". In R. S. Jensen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 640–655). Columbus: Ohio State University.
25.
Flin, R. (1995). Crew resource management for teams in the offshore oil industry. Journal of European Industrial Training, 19(9), 23–27.
26.
Fowlkes, J. E., Lane, N. E., Salas, E., Franz, T., & Oser, R. (1994). Improving the measurement of team performance: The TARGETs methodology. Military Psychology, 6, 47–61.
27.
Fowlkes, J. E., Lane, N. E., Salas, E., Oser, R. L., & Prince, C. (1992). TARGETs for aircrew coordination training. In Proceedings of the 14th Interservice/Industry Training Systems and Education Conference (pp. 344–352). San Antonio, TX: National Security Industrial Association.
28.
Freeman, C., & Simmon, D.A. (1991). Taxonomy of crew resource management: Information processing domain. In R. S. Jensen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 6th Annual International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 391–397). Columbus: Ohio State University.
29.
Geis, C. E. (1987). Changing attitudes through training: A formal evaluation of training effectiveness. In R. S. Jensen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 392–398). Columbus: Ohio State University.
30.
Goldsmith, T., & Kraiger, K. (1997). Structural knowledge assessment and training evaluation. In J. Ford, S. Kozlowski, K. Kraiger, E. Salas, & M. Teachout (Eds.), Improving training effectiveness in work organizations (pp. 19–46). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
31.
Goldstein, I. L. (1993). Training in organizations: Needs assessment, development, and evaluation (3rd ed). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
32.
Grau, J. Y., & Valot, C. (1997). Evolvement of crew attitudes in military airlift operations after CRM course. In R. S. Jensen, & L. A. Rakovan (Eds.), Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 556–561). Columbus: Ohio State University.
33.
Gregorich, S. E. (1993). The dynamics of CRM attitude change: Attitude stability. In Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 509–512). Columbus: Ohio State University.
34.
Gregorich, S. E., Helmreich, R. L., & Wilhelm, J. A. (1990). Structure of cockpit management attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 682–690.
35.
Gregorich, S. E., & Wilhelm, J. A. (1993). Crew resource management training assessment. In E. L. Wiener, B. G. Kanki, & R. L. Helmreich (Eds.), Cockpit resource management (pp. 173–198). San Diego, CA: Academic.
36.
Grubb, G., Morey, J. C., & Simon, R. (1999). Applications of the theory of reasoned action model of attitude assessment in the air force CRM program. In R. S. Jensen, B. Cox, J. D. Callister, & R. Lavis (Eds.), Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 298–301). Columbus: Ohio State University.
37.
Hackman, J. R. (1989). Resource management training and cabin crew coordination.Soldier's Field, MA: Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration.
38.
Halliday, J. T., Biegalski, C. S., & Inzana, A. (1987). CRM training in the 349th Military Airlift Wing. In H. W. Orlady, & H. C. Foushee (Eds.), Proceedings of the NASA/MAC Workshop on Conference Resource Management (NASA Conference Publication No. 2455, pp. 148–158). Moffett Field, CA: NASA-Ames Research Center.
39.
Hansberger, J. T., Holt, R. W., & Boehm-Davis, D. (1999). Instructor/evaluator evaluations of ACRM effectiveness. In R. S. Jensen, B. Cox, J. D. Callister, & R. Lavis (Eds.), Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 279–284). Columbus: Ohio State University.
40.
Hayward, B., & Alston, N. (1991). Team building following a pilot labour dispute: Extending the CRM envelope. In R. S. Jensen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 377–383). Columbus: Ohio State University.
41.
Helmreich, R. L. (1984). Cockpit management attitudes. Human Factors, 26, 583–589.
42.
Helmreich, R. L. (1991). Strategies for the study of flightcrew behavior. In R. S. Jensen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 338–343). Columbus: Ohio State University.
43.
Helmreich, R. L., Chidester, T. R., Foushee, H. C., Gregorich, S., & Wilhelm, J. A. (1990, May). How effective is cockpit resource management training? Exploring issues in evaluating the impact of programs to enhance crew coordination. Flight Safety Digest, pp. 1–17.
44.
Helmreich, R. L., & Foushee, H.C. (1993). Why crew resource management? Empirical and theoretical bases of human factors in aviation. In E. L. Wiener, B. G. Kanki, & R. L. Helmreich (Eds.), Cockpit resource management (pp. 3–45). San Diego, CA: Academic.
45.
Helmreich, R. L., & Merritt, A. C. (1998). Culture at work in aviation and medicine: National, organizational, and professional influences.Aldershot, England: Ashgate.
46.
Helmreich, R. L., Merritt, A. C., & Wilhelm, J. A. (1999). The evolution of crew resource management training in commercial aviation. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 9, 19–32.
47.
Helmreich, R. L., & Wilhelm, J. A. (1987). Evaluating cockpit resource management training. In R. S. Jensen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 440–446). Columbus: Ohio State University.
48.
Helmreich, R. L., & Wilhelm, J. A. (1991). Outcomes of crew resource management training. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 1, 287–300.
49.
Helmreich, R. L., Wilhelm, J. A., Gregorich, S. E., & Chidester, T. R. (1990). Preliminary results from the evaluation of cockpit resource management training: Performance ratings of flight-crews. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 61, 586–589.
50.
Helmreich, R. L., Wilhelm, J. A., Klinect, J. R., & Merritt, A. C. (2001). Culture, error and crew resource management. In E. Salas, C. A. Bowers, & E. Edens (Eds.), Improving teamwork in organizations: Applications of resource management training (pp. 305–331). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
51.
Hofstede, G. (1988). McGregor in southeast Asia. In D. Sinha & H. Kao, Sr. (Eds.), Social values and development: Asian perspectives (pp. 304–314). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
52.
Holt, R. W., Boehm-Davis, D. A., & Hansberger, J. T. (1999). Evaluating the effectiveness of ACRM using LOE and line-check data. In R. S. Jensen, B. Cox, J. D. Callister, & R. Lavis (Eds.), Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 273–278). Columbus: Ohio State University.
53.
Hörmann, H. J., Goeters, K. M., Maschke, P., & Schiewe, A. (1995). Implementation and initial evaluation of DLR/LH CRM-training. In R. S. Jensen, & L. A. Rakovan (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 591–596). Columbus: Ohio State University.
54.
Howard, S., Gaba, D., Fish, K., Yang, G., & Sarnquist, F. (1992). Anesthesia crisis resource management training: Teaching anethesiologists to handle critical incidents. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 63, 763–770.
55.
Ikomi, P. A., Boehm-Davis, D. A., Holt, R. W., & Incalcaterra, K. A. (1999). Jump seat observations of advanced crew resource management (ACRM) effectiveness. In R. S. Jensen, B. Cox, J. D. Callister, & R. Lavis (Eds.), Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 292–297). Columbus: Ohio State University.
56.
Incalcaterra, K. A., & Holt, R. W. (1999). Pilot evaluations of ACRM programs. In R. S. Jensen, B. Cox, J. D. Callister, & R. Lavis (Eds.), Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 285–291). Columbus: Ohio State University.
57.
Irwin, C. M. (1991). The impact of initial and recurrent cockpit resource management training on attitudes. In R. S. Jensen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 344–349). Columbus: Ohio State University.
58.
Jackson, D. L. (1983). United Airlines' cockpit resource management training. In R. S. Jensen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 131–137). Columbus: Ohio State University.
59.
Jentsch, F., & Bowers, C. A. (1998). Evidence for the validity of PC-based simulations in studying aircrew coordination. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 8, 243–260.
60.
Jentsch, F., Bowers, C. A., & Holmes, J. B. (1995). The acquisition and decay of aircrew coordination skills. In R. S. Jensen, & L. A. Rakovan (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 1063–1068). Columbus: Ohio State University.
61.
Kayten, P. J. (1993). The accident investigator's perspective. In E. L. Wiener, B. G. Kanki, & R. L. Helmreich (Eds.), Cockpit resource management (pp. 283–314). San Diego, CA: Academic.
62.
Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1976). Evaluation of training. In R. L. Craig (Ed.), Training and development handbook: A guide to human resources development (pp. 18.1–18.27). New York: McGraw-Hill.
63.
Komich, J. (1997). CRM training: Which crossroads to take now? In R. S. Jensen, & L. A. Rakovan (Eds.), Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 541–546). Columbus: Ohio State University.
64.
Kraiger, K., Ford, J. K., & Salas, E. (1993). Application of cognitive, skill-based, and affective theories of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 311–328.
65.
Kraiger, K., Salas, E., & Cannon-Bowers, J. A. (1995). Measuring knowledge organization as a method for assessing learning during training. Human Performance, 37, 804–816.
66.
Lassiter, D. L., Vaughn, J. S., Smaltz, V. E., Morgan, B. B., Jr. & Salas, E. (1990). A comparison of two types of training interventions on team communication performance. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting (pp. 1372–1376). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
67.
Leedom, D. K., & Simon, R. (1995). Improving team coordination: A case for behavioral-based training. Military Psychology, 7, 109–122.
68.
Margerison, C., Davies, R., & McCann, D. (1987). High-flying management development. Training and Development Journal, 41(2), 38–41.
69.
Maschke, P., Goeters, K. M., Hörmann, H. J., & Schiewe, A. (1995). The development of the DLR/Lufthansa crew resource management training program. In N. Johnston, R. Fuller, & N. McDonald (Eds.), Aviation psychology: Training and selection. Proceedings of the 21st Conference of the European Association for Aviation Psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 23–31). Aldershot, England: Avebury Aviation.
70.
Maurino, D. E. (1994). Cross-cultural perspectives in human factors training: Lessons from the ICAO Human Factors Program. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 4, 173–181.
71.
Maurino, D. E. (1999). Safety prejudices, training practices, and CRM: A mid-point perspective. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 9, 413–427.
72.
Merritt, A. C., & Helmreich, R. L. (1995a). CRM in 1995: Where to from here? In B. J. Hayward, & A. R. Lowe (Eds.), Applied aviation psychology: Achievement, change, and challenge. Proceedings of the 3rd Australian Aviation Psychology Symposium (pp. 111–126). Aldershot, England: Avebury Aviation.
73.
Merritt, A. C., & Helmreich, R. L. (1995b). Culture in the cockpit: A multi-airline study of pilot attitudes and values. In Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 676–681). Columbus: Ohio State University.
74.
Morey, J. C., Grubb, G., & Simon, R. (1997). Towards a new measurement approach for cockpit resource management attitudes. In R. S. Jensen, & L. A. Rakovan (Eds.), Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 478–483). Columbus: Ohio State University.
75.
Mudge, R. W. (1983). Cockpit management training for the professional pilot. In R. S. Jensen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2nd Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 165–172). Columbus: Ohio State University.
76.
Naef, W. (1995). Practical application of CRM concepts: Swissair's human aspects development program (HAD). In R. S. Jensen, & L. A. Rakovan (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 597–602). Columbus: Ohio State University.
77.
Nullmeyer, R. T., & Spiker, V. A. (in press). The importance of crew resource management behaviors in mission performance: Implications for training evaluation. Military Psychology.
78.
Orlady, H. W., & Foushee, H. C. (1987). Cockpit resource management training (Tech. Report NASA CP-2455). Moffett Field, CA: NASA Ames Research Center.
79.
Predmore, S. C. (1991). Microcoding communication in accident investigation: Crew coordination in the United 811 and United 232. In R. S. Jensen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 350–355). Columbus: Ohio State University.
80.
Prince, C., Brannick, M., Prince, C., & Salas, E. (1997). The measurement of team process behaviors in the cockpit: Lessons learned. In M. T. Brannick, E. Salas, & C. Prince (Eds.), Team performance assessment and measurement: Theory, methods, and applications (pp. 289–310). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
81.
Prince, C., Oser, R., Salas, E., & Woodruff, W. (1993). Increasing hits and reducing misses in CRM/LOS scenarios: Guidelines for simulator scenario development. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 3, 69–82.
82.
Prince, C., & Salas, E. (1999). Team processes and their training in aviation. In D. Garland, J. Wise, & D. Hopkins (Eds.), Handbook of aviation human factors (pp. 193–213). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
83.
Robertson, M. M., Taylor, J. C., Stelly, J. W., & Wagner, R. (1995). A systematic training evaluation model applied to measure the effectiveness of an aviation maintenance team training program. In R. S. Jensen, & L. A. Rakovan (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 631–636). Columbus: Ohio State University.
84.
Rollins, M. L. (1995). A descriptive study of crew resource management attitude change. In N. Johnston, R. Fuller, & N. McDonald (Eds.), Aviation psychology: Training and selection. Proceedings of the 21st Conference of the European Association for Aviation Psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 45–50). Aldershot, England: Avebury Aviation.
85.
Salas, E., Bowers, C. A., & Edens, E. (Eds.) (2001). Improving teamwork in organizations: Applications of resource management training. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
86.
Salas, E., & Cannon-Bowers, J. A. (2001). The science of training: A decade of progress. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 471–499.
87.
Salas, E., Fowlkes, J. E., Stout, R. J., Milanovich, D. M., & Prince, C. (1999). Does CRM training improve teamwork skills in the cockpit? Two evaluation studies. Human Factors, 41, 326–343.
88.
Salas, E., Prince, C., Bowers, C., Stout, R., Oser, R. L., & Cannon-Bowers, J. A. (1999). A methodology for enhancing crew resource management training. Human Factors, 41, 161–172.
89.
Salas, E., Rhodenizer, L., & Bowers, C. A. (2000). The design and delivery of CRM training: Exploiting available resources. Human Factors, 42, 490–511.
90.
Schiewe, A. (1995). On the acceptance of CRM-methods by pilots: Results of a cluster analysis. In R. S. Jensen, & L. A. Rakovan (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 540–545). Columbus: Ohio State University.
91.
Silverman, D. R., Spiker, V. A., Tourville, S. J., & Nullmeyer, R. T. (1997, December). Team coordination and performance during combat mission training. Paper presented at the 19th Annual Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation and Education Conference, Orlando, FL.
92.
Simmon, D. A. (1997). How to fix CRM. In R. S. Jensen, & L. A. Rakovan (Eds.), Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 550–553). Columbus: Ohio State University.
93.
Simpson, P., & Wiggins, M. (1995). Human factor attitudes. In B. J. Hayward, & A. R. Lowe (Eds.), Applied aviation psychology: Achievement, change, and challenge. Proceedings of the Third Australian Aviation Psychology Symposium (pp. 185–192). Aldershot, England: Avebury Aviation.
94.
Smith, G. M. (1994). Active learning strategies in undergraduate CRM flight training. In N. Johnston, R. Fuller, & N. McDonald (Eds.), Aviation psychology: Training and selection. Proceedings of the 21st Conference of the European Association for Aviation Psychology (pp. 17–22). Aldershot, England: Avebury Aviation.
95.
Spiker, V. A., Nullmeyer, R. T., Tourville, S. J., & Silverman, D. R. (1998). Combat mission training research at the 58th special operations wing: A summary (Tech. Report AL-HR-TR-1997-0182). Mesa, AZ: U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory.
96.
Spiker, V. A., Silverman, D. R., Tourville, S. J., & Nullmeyer, R. T. (1998). Tactical resource management effects on combat mission training performance (Tech. Report AL-HR-TR-1997-0137). Mesa, AZ: U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory.
97.
Stout, R. J., Salas, E., & Fowlkes, J. E. (1996, September). The efficacy of enhancing team performance in complex environments. In E. Salas & R. J. Stout (Cochairs), The science and practice of enhancing teamwork in organizations. Symposium conducted at the 104th Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada.
98.
Stout, R. J., Salas, E., & Fowlkes, J. E. (1997). Enhancing teamwork in complex environments through team training. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 1(2), 169–182.
99.
Stout, R. J., Salas, E., & Kraiger, K. (1997). The role of trainee knowledge structures in aviation team environments. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 7, 235–250.
100.
Taggart, W. R. (1994). Crew resource management: Achieving enhanced flight operations. In N. Johnston, N. McDonald, & R. Fuller (Eds.), Aviation psychology in practice (pp. 309–339). Aldershot, England: Ashgate.
101.
U.S. General Accounting Office. (1997). Human factors: FAA's guidance and oversight of pilot crew resource management training can be improved (GAO/RCED-98-7). Washington, DC: Author.
102.
Vandermark, M. J. (1991). Should flight attendants be included in CRM training? A discussion of a major air carrier's approach to total crew training. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 1, 87–94.
103.
Wiener, E. L., Kanki, B. G., & Helmreich, R. L. (Eds.). (1993). Cockpit resource management.San Diego, CA: Academic.
104.
Wilhelm, J. (1991). Crew member and instructor evaluations of line orientated flight training. In R. S. Jensen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 362–367). Columbus: Ohio State University.
105.
Yamamori, H., & Mito, T. (1993). Keeping CRM is keeping the flight safe. In E. L. Wiener, B. G. Kanki, & R. L. Helmreich (Eds.), Cockpit resource management (pp. 399–420). San Diego, CA: Academic.
106.
Young, J. P. (1995). Using group dynamics to reinforce CRM concepts in a collegiate course. In R. S. Jensen, & L. A. Rakovan (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 1189–1191). Columbus: Ohio State University.
