In this article, the authors review basic research on adolescent development in neuroscience, psychology, and marketing. The findings indicate that adolescents are more impulsive and self-conscious than adults. In addition, the adolescent brain's plasticity makes it more vulnerable to harm. Thus, there is emerging justification for restricting adolescents' exposure to advertising and promotions for high-risk, addictive products, especially if impulsive behaviors or image benefits are depicted.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AdlemanNancy E., MenonVinod, BlaseyChristine M., WhiteChristopher D., WarsofskyIlana S., GloverGary H., and ReissAllan L. (2002), “A Developmental fMRI Study of the Stroop Color-Word Task,”NeuroImage, 16 (1), 61–75.
2.
AdolphsRalph (2001), “The Neurobiology of Social Cognition,”Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 11 (2), 231–39.
3.
AndersenSusan L. (2003), “Trajectories of Brain Development: Point of Vulnerability or Window of Opportunity?”Neuroscience and Biobehavior Reviews, 27 (1–2), 3–18.
4.
AndersenSusan L., ThompsonAndrew T., RutsteinMark, HostetterJohn C., and TeicherMartin H. (2000), “Dopamine Receptor Pruning in Prefrontal Cortex During the Periadolescent Period in Rats,”Synapse, 37 (2), 167–69.
ArnettJeffrey Jensen (2000), “Optimistic Bias in Adolescent and Adult Smokers and Nonsmokers,”Addictive Behaviors, 25 (4), 625–32.
7.
ArnstenAmy F. (1997), “Catecholamine Regulation of the Prefrontal Cortex,”Journal of Psychopharmacology, 11 (2), 151–62.
8.
AuchusRichard J. and RaineyWilliam E. (2004), “Adrenarche: Physiology, Biochemistry and Human Disease,”Clinical Endocrinology, 60 (3), 288–96.
9.
BartonJohn, ChassinLaurie, PressonClark C., and ShermanSteven J. (1982), “Social Image Factors as Motivators of Smoking Initiation in Early and Middle Adolescence,”Child Development, 53 (6), 1499–1511.
10.
BelkRussell W., BahnKenneth D., and MayerRobert N. (1982), “Developmental Recognition of Consumption Symbolism,”Journal of Consumer Research, 9 (1), 4–17.
11.
BenesFrancine M., TaylorJill Bolte, and CunninghamMiles C. (2000), “Convergence and Plasticity of Monoaminergic Systems in the Medial Prefrontal Cortex During the Postnatal Peri Implications for the Development of Psychopathology,”Cerebral Cortex, 10 (10), 1014–1027.
12.
Beyth-MaromRuth, AustinLaurel, FischhoffBaruch, PalmgrenClaire, and Jacobs-QuadrelMarilyn (1993), “Perceived Consequences of Risky Behaviors: Adults and Adolescents,”Developmental Psychology, 29 (3), 549–63.
13.
BlankenAnn J. (1993), “Measuring Use of Alcohol and Other Drugs Among Adolescents,”Public Health Reports, 108 (Supplement 1), 25–30.
14.
BonnieRichard J. and O'ConnellMary Ellen (2004), Reducing Underage Drinking. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
15.
BoushDavid M., FriestadMarian, and RoseGregory M. (1994), “Adolescent Skepticism Toward TV Advertising and Knowledge of Advertiser Tactics,”Journal of Consumer Research, 21 (1), 165–75.
16.
BreslauNaomi and PetersonEdward L. (1996), “Smoking Cessation in Young Adults: Age at Initiation of Cigarette Smoking and Other Suspected Influences,”American Journal of Public Health, 86 (2), 214–20.
17.
Brooks-GunnJeanne, GraberJulia A., and PaikoffRoberta L. (1994), “Studying Links Between Hormones and Negative Affect: Models and Measures,”Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4 (4), 469–86.
18.
BrownBradford B. (1990), “Peer Groups and Peer Culture,” in At the Threshold: The Developing Adolescent, FeldmanS. Shirley and ElliottGlen R., eds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
19.
BrownSandra A., TapertSusan F., GranholmEric, and DelisDean C. (2000), “Neurocognitive Functioning of Adolescents: Effects of Protracted Alcohol Use,”Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 24 (2), 164–71.
20.
BuchananChristy M., EcclesJacquelynne S., and BeckerJill B. (1992), “Are Adolescents the Victims of Raging Hormones? Evidence for Activational Effects of Hormones on Moods and Behavior at Adolescence,”Psychological Bulletin, 111 (1), 62–107.
21.
BurtonDee, SussmanSteve, HansenWilliam B., JohnsonC. Anderson, and FlayBrian R. (1989), “Image Attributions and Smoking Intentions Among Seventh Grade Students,”Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 19 (8), 656–64.
22.
CauffmanElizabeth and SteinbergLaurence (1995), “The Cognitive and Affective Influences on Adolescent Decision-Making,”Temple Law Review, 68, 1763–89.
23.
CauffmanElizabeth and SteinbergLaurence (2000), “(Im)maturity of Judgment in Adolescence: Why Adolescents May Be Less Culpable Than Adults,”Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 18 (6), 741–60.
24.
ChambersR. Andrew, TaylorJane R., and PotenzaMarc N. (2003), “Developmental Neurocircuitry of Motivation in Adolescents: A Critical Period of Addiction Vulnerability,”American Journal Psychiatry, 160 (6), 1041–1052.
25.
ChassinLaurie, PressonClark C., ShermanSteven J., CortyEric, and OlshavskyRichard (1981), “Self-Images and Cigarette Smoking in Adolescence,”Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7 (4), 670–76.
26.
ChassinLaurie, PressonClark C., ShermanSteven J., and EdwardsDebra A. (1990), “The Natural History of Cigarette Smoking: Predicting Young-Adult Smoking Outcomes from Adolescent Smoking Patterns,”Health Psychology, 9 (6), 701–716.
27.
ClarkDavid M. and McManusFreda (2002), “Information Processing in Social Phobia,”Biological Psychiatry, 51 (1), 92–100.
28.
CohenJoel B. (2000), “Playing to Win: Marketing and Public Policy at Odds over Joe Camel,”Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 19 (Fall), 155–67.
29.
CohnLawrence D., MacfarlaneSusan, YanezClaudia, and ImaiWalter K. (1995), “Risk-Perception: Differences Between Adolescents and Adults,”Health Psychology, 14 (3), 217–22.
30.
ColderCraig R. and SticeEric (1998), “A Longitudinal Study of the Interactive Effects of Impulsivity and Anger on Adolescent Problem Behavior,”Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 27 (3), 255–74.
31.
CookPhilip J. and MooreMichael J. (1993), “Drinking and Schooling,”Journal of Health Economics, 12, 411–29.
32.
CrewsFulton T., BraunChristopher J., HoplightBlair, SwitzerRobert C.III, and KnappDarin J. (2000), “Binge Ethanol Consumption Causes Differential Brain Damage in Young Adolescent Rats Compared with Adult Rats,”Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 24 (11), 1712–23.
33.
Cunningham MilesGregory, BhattacharyyaSujoy, and BenesFrancine M. (2002), “Amygdalo-Cortical Sprouting Continues into Early Adulthood: Implications for the Development of Normal and Abnormal Function During Adolescence,”Journal of Comparative Neurology, 453 (2), 116–30.
34.
DahlRonald E. (2004), “Adolescent Brain Development: Vulnerabilities and Opportunities: Keynote Address,” in Adolescent Brain Development: Vulnerabilities and Opportunities, Vol. 1021, DahlRonald E. and SpearLinda Patia, eds. New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1–22.
35.
DavisMichael and WhalenPaul J. (2001), “The Amygdala: Vigilance and Emotion,”Molecular Psychiatry, 6 (1), 13–34.
36.
DiamondAdele (2000), “Close Interrelation of Motor Development and Cognitive Development and of the Cerebellum and Prefrontal Cortex,”Child Development, 71 (1), 44–56.
37.
DiFranzaJoseph R., SavageauJudith A., RigottiNancy A., FletcherK., OckeneJudith K., McNeillAnn D., ColemanMardia, and WoodC. (2002), “Development of Symptoms of Tobacco Dependence in Youths: 30 Month Follow Up Data from the DANDY Study,”Tobacco Control, 11 (3), 228–35.
38.
DurstonSarah, PolHilleke E. Hulshoff, CaseyB.J., GieddJay N., BuitelaarJan K., and van EngelandHerman (2001), “Anatomical MRI of the Developing Human Brain: What Have We Learned?”Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40 (9), 1012–1020.
39.
EriksonErik H. (1968), Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: W.W. Norton.
40.
ErnstMonique, GrantSteven J., LondonEdythe D., ContoreggiCarlo S., KimesAlane S., and SpurgeonLoretta (2003), “Decision Making in Adolescents with Behavior Disorders and Adults with Substance Abuse,”American Journal of Psychiatry, 160 (1), 33–42.
41.
EvelethPhyllis B. and TannerJames Mourilyan (1990), Worldwide Variation in Human Growth, 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
42.
EverittBarry J., CardinalRrudolf N., ParkinsonJohn A., and RobbinsTrevor W. (2003), “Appetitive Behavior: Impact of Amygdala-Dependent Mechanisms of Emotional Learning,”Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 985, 233–50.
FingerhutLois A. and WarnerMargaret (1997), “Injury Chartbook, Health United States 1996–97,” (accessed July 16, 2005), [available at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/hus97cht.pdf].
45.
FischhoffBaruch, ParkerAndrew M., de BruinWaendi Bruine, DownsJulie, PalmgrenClaire, DawesRobyn, and ManskiCharles F. (2000), “Teen Expectations for Significant Life Events,”Public Opinion Quarterly, 64 (2), 189–205.
46.
FolkmanSusan, LazarusRichard S., PimleyScott, and NovacekJill (1987), “Age Differences in Stress and Coping Processes,”Psychology and Aging, 2 (2), 171–84.
47.
FosterSusan E., VaughanRoger D., FosterWilliam H., and CalifanoJoseph A.Jr. (2003), “Alcohol Consumption and Expenditures for Underage Drinking and Adult Excessive Drinking,”Journal of American Medical Association, 289 (8), 989–95.
48.
FriestadMarian and WrightPeter (1994), “The Persuasion Knowledge Model: How People Cope with Persuasion Attempts,”Journal of Consumer Research, 21 (1), 1–31.
49.
FurbyLita and Beyth-MaromRuth (1992), “Risk Taking in Adolescence: A Decision-Making Perspective,”Developmental Review, 12 (1), 1–44.
50.
GardnerM. and SteinbergLaurence (in press), “Risky Decision-Making in Adolescence and Adulthood: An Experimental Study,”Developmental Psychology, forthcoming.
51.
GieddJay N. (2004), “Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Adolescent Brain,”Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021 (1), 77–85.
52.
GogtayNitin, GieddJay N., LuskLeslie, HayashiKiralee M., GreensteinDeaanna, VaituzisA. Catherine, NugentTom F.III, HermanDavid H., ClasenLiv S., TogaArthur W., RapoportJudith L., and ThompsonPaul M. (2004), “Dynamic Mapping of Human Cortical Development During Childhood Through Early Adulthood,”Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (United States), 101 (21), 8174–79.
53.
Goldman-RakicPatricia S., MulyE. ChristopherIII, and WilliamsGraham V. (2000), “D(1) Receptors in Prefrontal Cells and Circuits,”Brain Research Reviews, 31 (2–3), 295–301.
54.
GomezFrancisco, HoushyarHani, and DallmanMary F. (2002), “Marked Regulatory Shifts in Gonadal, Adrenal, and Metabolic System Responses to Repeated Restraint Stress Occur Within a 3-Week Period in Pubertal Male Rats,”Endocrinology, 143 (8), 2852–62.
55.
GraceAnthony A. and RosenkranzJ. Amiel (2002), “Regulation of Conditioned Responses of Basolateral Amygdala Neurons,”Physiology & Behavior, 77 (4–5), 489–93.
56.
GrantBridget F. and DawsonDeborah A. (1997), “Age at Onset of Alcohol Use and Its Association with DSM-IV Alcohol Abuse and Dependence: Results from the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey,”Journal of Substance Abuse, 9, 103–110.
57.
GreenbergerEllen (1982), “Education and the Acquisition of Psychosocial Maturity,” in The Development of Social Maturity, McClellandDavid C., ed. New York: Irvington Publishers.
58.
GrossJames J., CarstensenLaura L., PasupathiMonisha, HsuAngie Y.C., TsaiJeanne, and SkorpenCarina Gätestam (1997), “Emotion and Aging: Experience, Expression, and Control,”Psychology and Aging, 12 (4), 590–99.
59.
GuoJie, CollinsLinda M., HillKarl G., and HawkinsJ. David (2000), “Developmental Pathways to Alcohol Abuse and Dependence in Young Adulthood,”Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 61 (6), 799–808.
60.
HamannStephan, HermanRebecca A., NolanCarla L., and WallenKim (2004), “Men and Women Differ in Amygdala Response to Visual Sexual Stimuli,”Nature Neuroscience, 7 (4), 411–16.
61.
HamiltonWilliam L., Turner-BowkerDiane M., CelebuckiCarolyn C., and ConnollyGregory N. (2002), “Cigarette Advertising in Magazines: The Tobacco Industry Response to the Master Settlement Agreement and to Public Pressure,”Tobacco Control, 11 (Supplement 2), 54–58.
62.
HastingsGerard B. and AitkenPhilip P. (1995), “Tobacco Advertising and Children's Smoking: A Review of the Evidence,”European Journal of Marketing, 29 (11), 6–17.
63.
HaxbyJames V., HoffmanElizabeth A., and GobbiniM. Ida (2002), “Human Neural Systems for Face Recognition and Social Communication,”Biological Psychiatry, 51 (1), 59–67.
64.
HenkerBarbara, WhalenCarol K., JamnerLarry D., and DelfinoRalph J. (2002), “Anxiety, Affect, and Activity in Teenagers: Monitoring Daily Life with Electronic Diaries,”Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41 (6), 660–70.
65.
HerdtGilbert and McClintockMartha (2000), “The Magical Age of 10,”Archives of Sexual Behavior, 29 (6), 587–606.
66.
Herman-GiddensMarcia E., SloraEric J., WassermanRichard C., BourdonyCarlos J., BhapkarManju V., KochGary G., and HasemeierCynthia M. (1997), “Secondary Sexual Characteristics and Menses in Young Girls Seen in Office Practice: A Study from the Pediatric Research in Office Settings Network,”Pediatrics, 99 (4), 505–512.
67.
HingsonRalph and KenkelDonald (2004), “Social, Health, and Economic Consequences of Underage Drinking,” in Reducing Underage Drinking: A Collective Responsibility, BonnieRichard J. and O'ConnellEllen, eds. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
68.
HolbrookMorris B. and SchindlerRobert M. (1989), “Some Exploratory Findings on the Development of Musical Tastes,”Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (1), 119–24.
69.
HolsenIngrid, KraftPal, and VittersoJoar (2000), “Stability in Depressed Mood in Adolescence: Results from a 6-Year Longitudinal Panel Study,”Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29 (1), 61–78.
70.
HuttenlocherPeter R. (1979), “Synaptic Density in Human Frontal Cortex: Developmental Changes and Effects of Aging,”Brain Research, 163 (2), 195–205.
71.
InhelderBörbel and PiagetJean (1958), The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence: An Essay on the Construction of Formal Operational Structures. New York: Basic Books.
72.
IsenseeBarbara, WittchenHans-Ulrich, SteinMurray B., HoflerMichael, and LiebRoselind (2003), “Smoking Increases the Risk of Panic: Findings from a Prospective Community Study,”Archives of General Psychiatry, 60 (7), 692–700.
73.
JacobsenLeslie K., KrystalJohn H., MenclW. Einar, WesterveldMichael, FrostStephen J., and PughKenneth R. (2005), “Effects of Smoking and Smoking Abstinence on Cognition in Adolescent Tobacco Smokers,”Biological Psychiatry, 57 (1), 56–66.
74.
JangMi-Hyeon, ShinMin-Chul, JungSae-Bin, LeeTaeck-Hyun, BahnGeon-Ho, KwonYunhee Kim, KimEe-Hwa, and KimChang Ju (2002), “Alcohol and Nicotine Reduce Cell Proliferation and Enhance Apoptosis in Dentate Gyrus,”NeuroReport, 13 (12), 1509–1513.
75.
JohnstonLloyd D., O'MalleyPatrick M., and BachmanJerald G. (2003), “Monitoring the Future National Results on Adolescent Drug Use: Overview of Key Findings, 2002,” NIH Publication No. 03-5374. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
76.
JoyceJeffrey N., GoldsmithS.G., and GurevichEugenia V. (1997), “Limbic Circuits and Monoamine Receptors: Dissecting the Effects of Antipsychotics from Disease Processes,”Journal of Psychiatric Research, 31 (2), 197–217.
77.
KandelDenise B. and LoganJohn A. (1984), “Patterns of Drug Use from Adolescence to Young Adulthood: I. Periods of Risk for Initiation, Continued Use, and Discontinuation,”American Journal Public Health, 74 (7), 660–66.
78.
KasserTim and KannerAllen D. (2004), Psychology and Consumer Culture: The Struggle for a Good Life in a Materialistic World. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
79.
KeatingDaniel P. (1990), “Adolescent Thinking,” in At the Threshold: The Developing Adolescent, FeldmanS. Shirley and ElliottGlen R., eds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
80.
KelleyAnn E. (2004), “Memory and Addiction: Shared Neural Circuitry and Molecular Mechanisms,”Neuron, 44 (1), 161–79.
81.
KellyKathleen J., SlaterMichael, and KaranDavid (2002), “Image Advertisements' Influence on Adolescents' Perceptions of the Desirability of Beer and Cigarettes,”Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 21 (2), 295–304.
82.
KillgoreWilliam D., OkiMika, and Yurgelun-ToddDeborah A. (2001), “Sex-Specific Developmental Changes in Amygdala Responses to Affective Faces,”NeuroReport, 12 (2), 427–33.
83.
KingCharlesIII, SiegelMichael, CelebuckiCarolyn, and ConnollyGregory N. (1998), “Adolescent Exposure to Cigarette Advertising in Magazines: An Evaluation of Brand-Specific Advertising in Relation to Youth Readership,”Journal of the American Medical Association, 279 (7), 516–20.
84.
KlintsovaAnna Y. and GreenoughWilliam T. (1999), “Synaptic Plasticity in Cortical Systems,”Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 9 (2), 203–208.
85.
KoshibuKyoko, LevittPat, and AhrensEric T. (2004), “Sex-Specific, Postpuberty Changes in Mouse Brain Structures Revealed by Three-Dimensional Magnetic Resonance Microscopy,”NeuroImage, 22 (4), 1636–45.
86.
LambeEvelyn K., KrimerLeonid S., and Goldman-RakicPatricia S. (2000), “Differential Postnatal Development of Catecholamine and Serotonin Inputs to Identified Neurons in Prefrontal Cortex of Rhesus Monkey,”Journal of Neuroscience, 20 (23), 8780–87.
87.
LarsonReed and HamMark (1993), “Stress and ‘Storm and Stress’ in Early Adolescence: The Relationship of Negative Events with Dysphoric Affect,”Developmental Psychology, 29 (1), 130–40.
88.
LarsonReed, MonetaGiovanni, RichardsMaryse H., and WilsonSuzanne (2002), “Continuity, Stability, and Change in Daily Emotional Experience Across Adolescence,”Child Development, 73 (4), 1151–65.
89.
LarsonReed and RichardsMaryse H. (1991), “Daily Companionship in Late Childhood and Early Adolescence: Changing Developmental Contexts,”Child Development, 62 (2), 284–300.
90.
LarsonReed and RichardsMaryse H. (1994), Divergent Realities: The Emotional Lives of Mothers, Fathers, and Adolescents. New York: Basic Books.
91.
LeslieFrances, LoughlinSandra E., WangRuihua, PerezLilyanna, LotfipourShahrdad, and BelluzziaJames D. (2004), “Adolescent Development of Forebrain Stimulant Responsiveness: Insights from Animal Studies,”Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021 (160–61), 148–59.
92.
LevineLinda J., WhalenCarol K., HenkerBarbara, and JamnerLarry D. (2005), “Looking Back on September 11, 2001: Appraised Impact and Memory for Emotions in Adolescents and Adults,”Journal of Adolescent Research, 20 (4), 497–523.
93.
LewisCatherine C. (1987), “Minors' Competence to Consent to Abortion,”American Psychologist, 42 (1), 84–88.
94.
LewisDavid A. (1997), “Development of the Prefrontal Cortex During Adolescence: Insights into Vulnerable Neural Circuits in Schizophrenia,”Neuropsychopharmacology, 16 (6), 385–98.
95.
LinnSusan E. (2004), Consuming Kids: The Hostile Takeover of Childhood. New York: New Press.
96.
LunaBeatriz and SweeneyJohn A. (2004), “The Emergence of Collaborative Brain Function: fMRI Studies of the Development of Response Inhibition,”Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 296–309.
97.
LunaBeatriz, ThulbornKeith R., MunozDouglas P., MerriamElisha P., GarverKrista E., MinshewNancy J., KeshavanMatcheri S., GenoveseChristopher R., EddyWilliam F., and SweeneyJohn A. (2001), “Maturation of Widely Distributed Brain Function Subserves Cognitive Development,”NeuroImage, 13 (5), 786–93.
98.
LynchBarbara S. and BonnieRichard J. (1994), Growing Up Tobacco Free: Preventing Nicotine Addiction in Children and Youths. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
99.
MaggsJennifer L., AlmeidaDavid M., and GalambosNancy L. (1995), “Risky Business: The Paradoxical Meaning of Problem Behavior for Young Adolescents,”Journal of Early Adolescence, 15 (3), 344–62.
100.
MartinCatherine A., KellyThomas H., RayensMary Kay, BrogliBethanie R., BrenzelAllen, SmithW. Jackson, and OmarHatim A. (2002), “Sensation Seeking, Puberty and Nicotine, Alcohol and Marijuana Use in Adolescence,”Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41 (12), 1495–1502.
101.
MartinMary C. and GentryJames W. (1997), “Stuck in the Model Trap: The Effects of Beautiful Models in Ads on Female Pre-Adolescents and Adolescents,”Journal of Advertising, 26 (2), 19–33.
102.
MartinMary C., GentryJames W. and HillRonald Paul (1999), “The Beauty Myth and the Persuasiveness of Advertising: A Look at Adolescent Girls and Boys,” in Advertising to Children: Concepts and Controversies, MacklinM. Carole and CarlsonLes, eds. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 165–87.
103.
MartinMary C. and KennedyPatricia F. (1993), “Advertising and Social Comparison: Consequences for Female Preadolescents and Adolescents,”Psychology and Marketing, 10 (6), 513–30.
104.
MastenAnn S. (2004), “Regulatory Processes, Risk and Resilience in Adolescent Development,”Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 301–319.
105.
MayJanet K. and KoesterArdis W. (1985), “Clothing Purchase Practices of Adolescents,”Home Economics Research Journal, 13 (3), 226–36.
106.
McClintockMartha K. and HerdtGilbert (1996), “Rethinking Puberty: The Development of Sexual Attraction,”Current Directions in Psychological Science, 5 (6), 178–83.
107.
McClureSamuel M., LiJian, TomlinDamon, CypertKim S., MontagueLatane M., and MontagueP. Read (2004), “Neural Correlates of Behavioral Preference for Culturally Familiar Drinks,”Neuron, 44 (2), 379–87.
108.
McNealJames U. (1992), Kids as Customers: A Handbook of Marketing to Children. New York: Lexington Books.
109.
MetcalfeJanet and MischelWalter (1999), “A Hot/Cool-System Analysis of Delay of Gratification: Dynamics of Willpower,”Psychological Review, 106 (1), 3–19.
110.
MillsteinSusan G. and Halpern-FelsherBonnie L. (2002a), “Judgments About Risk and Perceived Invulnerability in Adolescents and Young Adults,”Journal of Research on Adolescence, 12 (4), 399–422.
111.
MillsteinSusan G. and Halpern-FelsherBonnie L. (2002b), “Perceptions of Risk and Vulnerability,”Journal of Adolescent Health, 31 (Supplement 1), 10–27.
112.
MoffittTerrie E. (1993), “Adolescence-Limited and Life-Course-Persistent Antisocial Behavior: A Developmental Taxonomy,”Psychological Review, 100 (4), 674–701.
113.
MoodyWilliam J. (1998), “Control of Spontaneous Activity During Development,”Journal of Neurobiology, 37 (1), 97–109.
114.
MooreRoy L. and StephensLowndes F. (1975), “Some Communication and Demographic Determinants of Adolescent Consumer Learning,”Journal of Consumer Research, 2 (2), 80–92.
115.
MooreSusan and GulloneEleonora (1996), “Predicting Adolescent Risk Behavior Using a Personalized Cost-Benefit Analysis,”Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 25 (3), 343–59.
116.
MoschisGeorge P. and ChurchillGilbert A. (1979), “An Analysis of the Adolescent Consumer,”Journal of Marketing, 43 (Summer), 40–48.
NeemannJennifer, HubbardJon, and MastenAnn S. (1995), “The Changing Importance of Romantic Relationship Involvement to Competence from Late Childhood to Late Adolescence,”Development and Psychopathology, 7 (4), 727–50.
119.
NelsonEric E., McClureErin B., MonkChristopher S., ZarahnEric, LeibenluftEllen, PineDaniel S., and ErnstMonique (2003), “Developmental Differences in Neuronal Engagement During Implicit Encoding of Emotional Faces: An Event-Related fMRI Study,”Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 44 (7), 1015–1024.
120.
NewmanSarah Winans (1999), “The Medial Extended Amygdala in Male Reproductive Behavior: A Node in the Mammalian Social Behavior Network,”Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 877, 242–57.
121.
ParsonsJeffrey T., SiegelAlexander W., and CousinsJennifer H. (1997), “Late Adolescent Risk-Taking: Effects of Perceived Benefits and Perceived Risks on Behavioral Intentions and Behavioral Change,”Journal of Adolescence, 20 (4), 381–92.
122.
PechmannCornelia and KnightSusan J. (2002), “An Experimental Investigation of the Joint Effects of Advertising and Peers on Adolescents' Beliefs and Intentions About Cigarette Consumption,”Journal of Consumer Research, 29 (1), 5–19.
123.
PechmannCornelia and RatneshwarSrinivasan (1994), “The Effects of Antismoking and Cigarette Advertising on Young Adolescents' Perceptions of Peers Who Smoke,”Journal of Consumer Research, 21 (2), 236–51.
124.
People of the State of California v. R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company (2002), Case No. GIC 764118, County of San Diego, Superior Court of California, (June 6).
125.
PetersenAnne C., CompasBruce E., Brooks-GunnJeanne, StemmlerMark, EySydney, and GrantKathryn E. (1993), “Depression in Adolescence,”American Psychologist, 48 (2), 155–68.
126.
PhilpotRex Montgomery, BadanichKimberly A., and KirsteinCheryl (2003), “Place Conditioning: Age-Related Changes in the Rewarding and Aversive Effects of Alcohol,”Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 27 (4), 593–99.
127.
PierceJohn P., GilpinElizabeth A., BurnsDavid M., WhalenElizabeth, RosbrookBradley, ShoplandDonald, and JohnsonMichael (1991), “Does Tobacco Advertising Target Young People to Start Smoking? Evidence from California,”Journal of the American Medical Association, 266 (22), 3154–58.
128.
PineDaniel S. (2001), “Affective Neuroscience and the Development of Social Anxiety Disorder,”Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 24 (4), 689–705.
129.
PollayRichard W., SiddarthS., SiegelMichael, HaddixAnne, MerrittRobert K., GiovinoGary A., and EriksenMichael P. (1996), “The Last Straw? Cigarette Advertising and Realized Market Shares Among Youths and Adults, 1979–1993,”Journal of Marketing, 60 (April), 1–16.
130.
PucciLinda G. and SiegelMichael (1999), “Exposure to Brand-Specific Cigarette Advertising in Magazines and Its Impact on Youth Smoking,”Preventive Medicine: An International Journal Devoted to Practice and Theory, 29 (5), 313–20.
131.
QinYulin, CarterCameron S., SilkEli M., StengerV. Andrew, FissellKate, GoodeAdam, and AndersonJohn R. (2004), “The Change of the Brain Activation Patterns as Children Learn Algebra Equation Solving,”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (United States), 101 (15), 5686–91.
QuartAllissa (2004), Branded: The Buying and Selling of Teenagers. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing.
134.
RankinJane L., LaneDavid J., GibbonsFrederick X., and GerrardMeg (2000), “Adolescent Self-Consciousness: Longitudinal Age Changes and Gender Differences in Two Cohorts,”Journal of Research on Adolescence, 14 (1), 1–21.
135.
RichinsMarsha L. (1991), “Social Comparison and the Idealized Images of Advertising,”Journal of Consumer Research, 18 (1), 71–83.
136.
RindfleischAric, BurroughsJames E., and DentonFrank (1997), “Family Structure, Materialism, and Compulsive Consumption,”Journal of Consumer Research, 23 (4), 312–25.
137.
RomeoRussell D., LeeSusan J., ChhuaNara, McPhersonChristina R., and McEwenBruce S. (2004), “Testosterone Cannot Activate an Adult-Like Stress Response in Prepubertal Male Rats,”Neuroendocrinology, 79 (3), 125–32.
138.
RossoIsabelle M., YoungAshley D., FeminaLisa A., and Yurgelun-ToddDeborah A. (2004), “Cognitive and Emotional Components of Frontal Lobe Functioning in Childhood and Adolescence,”Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 355–62.
139.
RoweRichard, MaughanBarbara, WorthmanCarol M., CostelloE. Jane, and AngoldAdrian (2004), “Testosterone, AntisocialBehavior, and Social Dominance in Boys: Pubertal Development and Biosocial Interaction,”Biological Psychiatry, 55 (5), 546–52.
140.
SapolskyRobert M. (2003), “Stress and Plasticity in the Limbic System,”Neurochemical Research, 28 (11), 1735–42.
141.
SenBisakha (2002), “Does Alcohol-Use Increase the Risk of Sexual Intercourse Among Adolescents? Evidence from the NLSY97,”Journal of Health Economics, 21 (6), 1085–1093.
142.
ShivBaba and FedorikhinAlexander (1999), “Heart and Mind in Conflict: The Interplay of Affect and Cognition in Consumer Decision Making,”Journal of Consumer Research, 26 (3), 278–92.
143.
ShivBaba and FedorikhinAlexander (2002), “Spontaneous Versus Controlled Influences of Stimulus-Based Affect on Choice Behavior,”Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 87 (2), 342–70.
SiskCheryl L. and FosterDouglas L. (2004), “The Neural Basis of Puberty and Adolescence,”Nature Neuroscience, 7 (10), 1040–1047.
146.
SlaweckiCraig J., GilderAllison, RothJennifer, and EhlersCindy L. (2003), “Increased Anxiety-Like Behavior in Adult Rats Exposed to Nicotine as Adolescents,”Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 75 (2), 355–61.
147.
SlaweckiCraig J., ThorsellAnnika, and EhlersCindy L. (2004), “Long-Term Neurobehavioral Effects of Alcohol or Nicotine Exposure in Adolescent Animal Models,”Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 448–52.
148.
SlotkinTheodore A. (2002), “Nicotine and the Adolescent Brain: Insights from an Animal Model,”Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 24 (3), 369–84.
149.
SnyderHoward N. and SickmundMelissa (1999), Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999 National Report, U.S. Department of Justice, ed. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
150.
SolomonMichael R. (1983), “The Role of Products as Social Stimuli: A Symbolic Interactionism Perspective,”Journal of Consumer Research, 10 (3), 319–29.
151.
SolomonMichael R. (1992), Consumer Behavior. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
152.
SowellElizabeth R., ThompsonPaul M., TessnerKevin D., and TogaArthur W. (2001), “Mapping Continued Brain Growth and Gray Matter Density Reduction in Dorsal Frontal Cortex: Inverse Relationships During Postadolescent Brain Maturation,”Journal of Neuroscience, 21 (22), 8819–29.
153.
SpearLinda P. (2000), “The Adolescent Brain and Age-Related Behavioral Manifestations,”Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 24 (4), 417–63.
154.
SpurrJane M. and StopaLusia (2002), “Self-Focused Attention in Social Phobia and Social Anxiety,”Clinical Psychology Review, 22 (7), 947–75.
155.
SteinbergLaurence D. (2002), Adolescence, 6th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
156.
SteinbergLaurence D. and CauffmanElizabeth (1996), “Maturity of Judgment in Adolescence: Psychosocial Factors in Adolescent Decision Making,”Law and Human Behavior, 20 (3), 249–72.
157.
SteinbergLaurence D., DahlRonald E., KeatingDaniel P., KupferDavid L., MastenAnn S., and PineDaniel S. (in press), “The Study of Developmental Psychopathology in Adolescence: Integrating Affective Neuroscience with Study of Context,” in Handbook of Developmental Psychopathology, Dante Cicchetti, ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, forthcoming.
158.
SteinbergLaurence D. and ScottElizabeth S. (2003), “Less Guilty by Reason of Adolescence: Development Immaturity, Diminished Responsibility, and the Juvenile Death Penalty,”American Psychologist, 58 (12), 1009–1018.
159.
SteinbergLaurence D. and SilverbergSusan B. (1986), “The Vicissitudes of Autonomy in Early Adolescence,”Child Development, 57 (4), 841–51.
160.
TaioliEmanuela and WynderErnst L. (1991), “Effect of the Age at Which Smoking Begins on Frequency of Smoking in Adulthood,”New England Journal of Medicine, 325 (13), 968–69.
161.
TapertSusan F., BrownGregory G., KindermannSandra S., CheungErick H., FrankLawrence R., and BrownSandra A. (2001), “fMRI Measurement of Brain Dysfunction in Alcohol-Dependent Young Women,”Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 25 (2), 236–45.
162.
TaraziFrank I. and BaldessariniRoss J. (2000), “Comparative Postnatal Development of Dopamine D(1), D(2) and D(4) Receptors in Rat Forebrain,”International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 18 (1), 29–37.
163.
TercyakKenneth P., GoldmanPaula, SmithAshlyn, and AudrainJanet (2002), “Interacting Effects of Depression and Tobacco Advertising Receptivity on Adolescent Smoking,”Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 27 (2), 145–54.
164.
ThompsonRoss A. (1994), “Emotion Regulation: A Theme in Search of Definition,” in Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, Vol. 59, No. 2–3, Nathan A. Fox, ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 25–52.
165.
TiceDianne M., BratslavskyEllen, and BaumeisterRoy F. (2001), “Emotional Distress Regulation Takes Precedence over Impulse Control: If You Feel Bad, Do It!”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80 (1), 53–67.
166.
Tobacco Institute (1990), “Cigarette Advertising and Promotion Code,” (accessed July 18, 2005), [available at http://www.tobaccoinstitute.com/].
167.
TrimpopRudiger M., KerrJohn H., and KirkcaldyBruce D. (1999), “Comparing Personality Constructs of Risk-Taking Behavior,”Personality and Individual Differences, 26 (2), 237–54.
168.
TsengKuei Y. and O'DonnellPatricio (2005), “Post-Pubertal Emergence of Prefrontal Cortical Up States Induced by D1-NMDA Co-Activation,”Cerebral Cortex, 15 (1), 49–57.
169.
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1994), “Changes in the Cigarette Brand Preferences of Adolescent Smokers: United States, 1989-1993,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, (August 19), 577–81.
170.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1995a), “The Effects of the Mass Media on the Use and Abuse of Alcohol,” in U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Research Monograph 28, Susan E. Martin, ed. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.
171.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1995b), “Regulations Restricting the Sale and Distribution of Cigarettes and Smokeless Tobacco Products to Protect Children and Adolescents; Proposed Rule,”Federal Register, 60 (155), 41314–75.
172.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1996), “Regulations Restricting the Sale and Distribution of Cigarettes and Smokeless Tobacco Products to Protect Children and Adolescents; Final Rule,”Federal Register, 61 (168), 44396–45318.
173.
ViauVictor, BinghamBrenda, DavisJennifer, LeePatricia, and WongMargaret (2005), “Gender and Puberty Interact on the Stress-Induced Activation of Parvocellular Neurosecretory Neurons and Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone Messenger Ribonucleic Acid Expression in the Rat,”Endocrinology, 146 (1), 137–46.
174.
WaeltiPascale, DickinsonAnthony, and SchultzWolfram (2001), “Dopamine Responses Comply with Basic Assumptions of Formal Learning Theory,”Nature, 412 (6842), 43–48.
175.
WakefieldMelanie, FlayBrian R., NichterMark, and GiovinoGary A. (2003), “Role of the Media in Influencing Trajectories of Youth Smoking,”Addiction, 98 (Supplement 1), 79–103.
176.
WalkerElaine F., SabuwallaZainab, and HuotRebecca (2004), “Pubertal Neuromaturation, Stress Sensitivity, and Psychopathology,”Development and Psychopathology, 16 (4), 807–824.
177.
WechslerHenry, DowdallGeorge W., MaennerGretchen, Gledhill-HoytJeana, and LeeHang (1998), “Changes in Binge Drinking and Related Problems Among American College Students Between 1993 and 1997. Results of the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study,”Journal of American College Health, 47 (2), 57–68.
178.
WeinsteinNeil D. (1980), “Unrealistic Optimism About Future Life Events,”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39 (5), 806–820.
179.
WhalenCarol K., JamnerLarry D., HenkerBarbara, and DelfinoRalph J. (2001), “Smoking and Moods in Adolescents with Depressive and Aggressive Dispositions: Evidence from Surveys and Electronic Diaries,”Health Psychology, 20 (2), 99–111.
180.
WiseRoy A. (2004), “Dopamine, Learning and Motivation,”Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5 (6), 483–94.
181.
WoodPhillip K., SherKenneth J., EricksonDarin J., and DeBordKurt A. (1997), “Predicting Academic Problems in College from Freshman Alcohol Involvement,”Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 58 (2), 200–210.
WrightPeter (1986), “Schemer Schema: Consumers' Intuitive Theories About Marketers' Influence Tactics,” in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 13, LutzRichard, ed. Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1–3.
184.
WulfertEdelgard, BlockJennifer A., AnaElizabeth Santa, RodriguezMonica L., and ColsmanMelissa (2002), “Delay of Gratification: Impulsive Choices and Problem Behaviors in Early and Late Adolescence,”Journal of Personality, 70 (4), 533–52.
185.
ZolloPeter (2004), Getting Wiser to Teens: More Insights into Marketing to Teenagers. Ithaca, NY: New Strategist Publications.
186.
ZuckermanMarvin (1979), Sensation Seeking: Beyond the Optimal Level of Arousal. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
