The first part of this paper consists of reports of Russian carbon dioxide emissions, and a range of adjustments is then made on the assumption of similar under-reporting for both carbon dioxide and acid rain emissions, based on previous research on emissions of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen from the former USSR. This range of estimates is then compared with reports of greenhouse gas emissions from other major industrial Western countries. The next section of the paper provides information on technological options for the reduction of carbon dioxide and acid rain emissions within a framework of available fuels and combustion processes. The paper continues with a discussion of the Russian economic, political and commercial factors which will influence the practical implementation of those technologies in that region, and concludes with suggestions for further research on technology transfer processes.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
ABB, Emissions and the Global Environment: Statistics and Scenarios 1994 (prepared by B. Eliasson, ABB Corporate Research Centre, Switzerland), ABB Environmental Affairs, Vaxö, Sweden, 1994, p.16.
2.
Air Pollution: Allowance Trading Offers on Opportunity to Reduce Emissions at Less Cost, GAO/RCED-95-30, US General Accounting Office, Washington, D.C., December 1994.
3.
AndersonD.GrubbM., (eds), Controlling Carbon and Sulphur. Joint Implementation and Trading Initiatives (Proceedings of the 10th RIIA/IAEE/BIEE International Energy Conference, Chatham House, London, 5–6 December 1996), Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, 1997.
4.
AslundA., “Rouble Trouble”, The World Today, Vol. 54, No. 8 (July 1998), pp.185–187.
5.
BagautdinovA.Z.ZhivotovV.K.EremenkoYuI.KalachevI.A.MisinovS.A.PotapkinV.V.PampushkaA.M.RusanovV.D.StrelkovaM.I.FridmanA.A.ZollerV.A., High Temperature Chemical Processes, 1993, No.2, p.47.
6.
BlokK., “Final Report of the Integrated Research Programme on Carbon Dioxide Recovery and Storage”, Utrecht University, Report No. 92963 1993.
7.
Boehmer-ChristiansenSSkeaJ., Acid Politics: Environmental and Energy Policies in Britain and Germany, Belhaven, London, 1991.
8.
BondA.R., “The Russian Copper Industry and the Noril'sk Joint Stock Company in the mid 1990s”, Post-Soviet Geography and Economics, Vol 37, No. 5 (1996), pp.286–329.
9.
CarretteY. M.McMillanJ., “Environmental characteristics of gas turbine combined cycle”, Power Generation and the Environment, I. Mech E./E.M.E.P., 1990, pp. 135–144.
10.
DawesS.G.BrownD.HydeJ.C., “Options for advanced power generation from coal”, Power Generation and the Environment, I. Mech. E./E.M.E.P., 1990, pp.123–134.
11.
DixonR., “The US Initiative on Joint Implementation”, in Anderson and Grubb (1997) pp.129–144.
12.
DovlandH., “Monitoring European Transboundary Air Pollution”, Environment, Vol. 29, No. 10, (1987).
13.
DovlandH., “The influence of science on the evolution of international regimes on sulphur”, in Anderson and Grubb (1997), pp.56–64.
14.
DrozdovaO.N.DisitsynN.V.“Ob uporyadochenii tarifov i razvitii konkurentsii na rynke electricheskoi energii”, Energetik1997, No 8, pp.4,5.
15.
D'YakovA.F.“Elektroenergetika Rossii i energeticheskaya bezopasnost”, Energetik, 1995, No. 10, pp. 2–4.
D'YakovA. F., “Investitsionnaya i innovatsionnaya politika Rossiiskoi elektroenergetiki”Elektricheskie stantsii, 1997, No. 8, pp. 8–12 (D'yakov, 1997a).
18.
D'YakovA.F., “Ob osnovnykh itogakh i dal'neischikh planakh deyatel'nosti RAO EES Rossii”, Energetik1997, No 9, pp.2–4 (D'yakov, 1997b).
19.
D'YakovA. F., “Ob osnovnykh itogakh deyatel'nosti RAO ‘EES Rossii’ za 1996g.”, Elektricheskie stantsii, 1997, No 10, pp 2–11 (D'yakov, 1997c).
20.
Economic Commission for Europe, (ECE), Executive Body for the convention on long-range Transboundary Air Pollution, 1994 Major Review on Strategies and Policies for Air Pollution Abatement. Tables and Figures, (EB.AIR/R.87/Add.1), 21 September, 1994.
21.
Economic Commission for Europe, Strategies and Policies for Air Pollution Abatement. 1994 major review prepared under the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution, United Nations, New York and Geneva, 1995.
22.
The Economist, 22 August 1998, pp. 61–63 (“A detour or a derailment?”).
23.
The Economist, 29 August 1998, p.75 (“Three's company”).
24.
EliassonB., “CO2 Chemistry: An Option for CO2 Emission Control?” in PradierJ-PPradierC-M (eds) Carbon Dioxide Chemistry: Environmental Issues, The Royal Society of Chemistry Cambridge, 1994.
25.
EliassonB., “Energy, Technology and Global Climate Change” in Energy and Environment. A Question of Survival (edited by AbeleM.) Acta Forum Engelberg, Chapter 15, Verlag StiftsdruckereiEngelberg, 1995.
26.
Environmental Data Report 1993–4, United Nations Environmental Program, Blackwell, Oxford, 1993.
27.
FangW.L., “Industrial and Economic Consequence of the Sulphur Trading Scheme”, paper presented at Conference on Controlling Carbon and Sulphur: International Investment and Trading Initiatives, Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, 5 & 6 December 1996.
28.
ForsythT., “Foreign investment and technology transfer for climate change mitigation: A background” in ForsythT. (ed.), Positive Measures for Technology Transfer Under the Climate Change Convention, The Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, 1998, pp.1–12.
29.
Graham-BryceI.J.KarisW.G.KinoshitaA.SullivanK.M.SummersG.G., “Improved Coal Utilization Technology: Potential to Reduce Carbon Dioxide Emissions” in International Energy Agency (IEA), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), The Clean and Efficient Use of Coal and Lignite. Its Role in Energy, Environment and Life, OECD, Paris, 1994, pp.513–522.
30.
Goskomstat, Narodnoe khozyaistvo SSSR v 1989 godu. statisticheskii ezhegodnik, Moscow, Finansy i statistika, 1990.
31.
The Guardian, 12 December 1997, p.15 (“Kyoto deal ‘leaves US free to pollute’ “).
32.
The Guardian, 24 March 1998, p. 11 (“Technocrat for a temporary fix”).
33.
The Guardian, 23 April 1998, p. 16 (“‘Hot air’ market is set for take-off).
34.
The Guardian, 1 May 1998, p.16 (“Chubais handed energy challenge”).
35.
GushchaV.I., “Puti resheniya ekologicheskikh problem na ugol'nykh elektrostantsiyakh Rossii”Paper presented at the Symposium on New Coal Utilization Technologies, Helsinki, 10–13 May 1993, Economic Commission for Europe, Committee on Energy, Working Party on Coal.
36.
HerzogH.J., “CO2 Mitigation Strategies: Perspectives on the Capture and Sequestration Option”, Energy and Environment, Vol. 7 (1996), Issue 2, pp. 223–236.
37.
HillM.R., “Atmospheric Pollution in the Former USSR: Dimensions, Context and International Factors”, Journal of Area Studies, Issue 8 (Spring 1996), pp.120–144.
38.
HillM.R., Environment and Technology in the former USSR: The Case of Acid Rain and Power Generation, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 1997 (Hill 1997a).
39.
HillM.R., “Energy, Environment and Technology in the Former USSR: The Case of Fossil-fuelled Power Stations and Acid Rain Emissions”, Energy and Environment, Vol. 8, 1997, Issue 4, pp. 247–267 (Hill 1997b).
40.
HjalmarrsonA.K., Interactions in emissions control for coal-fired power plants, IEA Coal Research, London, March 1992.
41.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Climate Change. The IPCC Assessment (edited by HoughtonJ.T.JenkinsG.F. and EphraumsJ.J.), Cambridge U.P., Cambridge, 1990.
42.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Climate Change 1994: Radiative Forcing of Climate Change and An Evaluation of the IPCC IS92 Emission Scenarios edited by HoughtonJ.T.FeilhoMeira I.G.BruceJ.LeeHoesungCallanderB.A.HaitesE.HarrisN. and MaskellK., Cambridge U. P., Cambridge, 1994.
43.
International Chamber of Commerce and World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Business and Climate Change: Case Studies in Greenhouse Gas Reduction, Kyoto,1997.
44.
International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), A Study of the Soviet Economy, Volume 3, OECD, Paris, 1991.
45.
JensenR.P.SendenM.M.G.BakkerH.L.M., “Coal Gasification: Current Status and Prospects” in Coal in the Environment. Proceedings, World Coal Institute, London, 1991, pp. 141–148.
46.
KokorinA., “Implementation Strategy of Climate Mitigation Changes Measures in Russia”; Paper presented at the Conference on Climate After Kyoto: Implications for Energy, Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, 5 & 6 February 1998.
47.
KotovV.NikitinaE., Greenhouse Gas Inventories: National Reporting Processes and Implementation Review Mechanisms in the EU- Country Case Study on Russia, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Jülich, 1996 (Kotov and Nikitina, 1996a).
48.
KotovV.NikitinaE., “Norilsk Nickel: Russia Wrestles with an Old Polluter”, Environment, 1996, Vol 38, Part 9, pp 6–11,32,37 (Kotov and Nikitina, 1996b).
49.
LagerevA.V.KhanaevaV.N., “Ob effektivnosti i masshtabakh razvitiya AES v Rossii”, Elektricheskie stantsii, 1997, No. 11, pp.21–25.
50.
LenstraW.van EngelenbergB.C.W.van GrootveldG., “Frameworks and Communications Perspectives in Tackling the Climate Change Challenge for Energy Supply”, in Fourth International Conference on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies (Programme and Abstract Book), Interlaken,1998, p.104.
51.
LyalikG. N.ReznikovskiiA. Sh., Elektroenergetika i priroda, Energoatomizdat, Moscow,1995.
52.
MakansiJ., “Reducing NOx Emissions from Today's Power Plants”, Power, May 1993, pp.11–31.
53.
MakarovA. A. and BasmakovI. A., “USSR: A Strategy of Energy Development with Minimum Emission of Greenhouse Gases” in Carbon Emissions Control Strategies: Case Studies in International Co-operation, Battelle Memorial Institute, Washington, DC, 1990.
54.
McLeanB., “The evolution of marketable permits: The US experience with sulphur dioxide allowance trading” in Anderson and Grubb (1997), pp.83–105.
55.
MeyerL., “The Netherlands Non-CO2 Greenhouse Gases Emissions Reduction Programme”, in Fourth International Conference on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies (Programme and Abstract Book), Interlaken, 1998, p. 93.
56.
MylonaS., Trends of sulphur dioxide emissions, air concentrations and depositions of sulphur in Europe since 1980, EMEP/MSC-W report 2/93, Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Oslo, 1993.
57.
PacynaJ.M.LarssenS.R.SembA., “European survey for NOx emissions with emphasis on Eastern Europe”, Atmospheric Environment, No. 25A (1991), pp. 425–439.
58.
PalmisanoJ., “How Can the Lessons Learned from Joint Implementation Help Construct an International Carbon Offset Regime”, Journal of the World Energy Council, December 1996, pp.37–42.
59.
PrutkovskiiE.N.ChavchanidzeE.K., “Combined Cycle Steam and Gas Units with the Clean-Up of the Flue Gases from Carbon Dioxide”, Heat Recovery Systems and CHP, Vol. 15, No. 2 (1995), pp 215–230.
60.
PrydeP.R., Environmental Management in the former Soviet Union, Cambridge U.P., Cambridge1991.
61.
RamusC.A., The Large Combustion Plant Directive: An Analysis of European Environmental Policy, Oxford Institute of Energy Studies, Oxford, 1991 (Working Paper EV7).
62.
RussellJ., “Soviet CO2 Emissions: Not a Burning Issue?” in GrubbM., Energy Policies and the Greenhouse Effect Volume 2: Country Studies and Technical Options, Royal Institute of International Affairs, London/Dartmouth, Aldershot, 1991, pp.325–356.
63.
Russian Federation, Interagency Commission of the Russian Federation on Climate Change Problems, First National Communication, Moscow, 1995.
64.
SchemenauW.Van den BergC., “The future of coal-fired power plants”, Power Generation and the Environment, I. Mech. E./E.M.E.P., 1990.
65.
SedikhA., “Environmental Problems: The Gas Industry and the Environment”, Natural Gas: Trade and Investment Opportunities in Russia and the CIS (Fourth International Conference convened by the Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, 26–27 October 1995), Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, 1995, pp' 28–30.
66.
ShahgedanovaM. (Private Communication) quotes YablokovA.V.KalyakinV.N., and VilchekG.E., Rossiskaya Arktika na poroge katastrofy, The Russian Centre of Environmental Politics Press, Moscow, 1996, as her source.
67.
ShahgedanovaM.BurtT. P., “New data on air pollution in the former Soviet Union”, Global Environmental Change, Vol. 4, No. 3 (1994), pp. 201–227.
68.
SternJ.P., Oil and Gas in the Former Soviet Union: The Changing Foreign Investment Agenda, Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, 1993.
69.
SternJ.P., The Russian Natural Gas ‘Bubble’: Consequences for European Gas Markets, The Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, 1995.
70.
TuovinenJ-PLaurilaT.LättiläH.RyaboshapkoA.BrukhanovP.KorolevS., “Impact of the sulphur dioxide sources in the Kola peninsula on air quality in northernmost Europe”, Environment, No. 27A (1993), pp. 1379–1395;.
71.
TuovinenJ. P.BarrettK. and StyveH. (1994), Transboundary Acidifying Pollution in Europe: Calculated Fields and Budgets 1985–93, Det Norske Meterologiske Institut Technical Report No.129 (EMEP/MSC-W Report 1 /94), Oslo, July 1994.
72.
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1994 (114th edition), Washington, D.C., 1994.
73.
VeldtC., “Emissions of SOx, NOx, VOC and CO from East European countries”, Atmospheric Environment, No. 25A (1991), pp. 2683–2700.
74.
WalshM.J., “Market-Based Solutions to Climate Change”, Paper presented at the Conference on Controlling Carbon and Sulphur: International Investment and Trading Initiatives, Royal Institute of International Affairs, London 5 & 6 December 1996.
75.
World Energy Council Commission, Energy for Tomorrow's World, Kogan Page, London, 1993.
76.
ZykovV.M., “Basic Factors for the Improvement of the Competitiveness of Promising Russian Coals”, Paper presented at EC/Directorate for Energy/DG XVII, Rosugol Conference on “Coal in a Competitive Market”, 21–23 June 1995, Russian Academy of State Services under the President of the Russian Federation, Moscow.
