Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2006-7
Eroding Wilderness: The Ecological,Legal,Political,and Social Consequences of Oil and Natural Gas Development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR)
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 1002 Area, Petroleum Assessment, 1998, Including Economic Analysis, USGS Fact Sheet 0028-01: Online Report, 1998, retrieved from http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs-0028-01.htm.
5.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 1002 Area, Petroleum Assessment, 1998, Including Economic Analysis, USGS Fact Sheet 0028-01: Online Report, 1998, retrieved from http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs-0028-01.htm.
6.
See WolkeH., National Wilderness Prevention System Under Siege, Wild Earth, 2003, 13(1), 15–19; DochertyB., Challenging Boundaries: The ANWR and International Environmental Law Protection, New York University School of Law Environmental Journal, 2001, 10(7), 70–77; PasquinelliS. N., To Drill or Not to Drill: The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge v. The Need for U.S. Energy Dependence, Golden Gate University Law Review, 2003, 33(2), 503–515.
7.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, A Preliminary Review of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska Coastal Plain Resource Assessment: Report and Recommendation to the Congress of the United States and Final Legislative Environmental Impact Statement, August 29, 1995, 4.
8.
CornM.L.KuminsL.C., and BaldwinP., The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, CRS Issue Brief for Congress, September 5, 1996, 7.
BurnhamM., ANWR Drilling in Bush's FY 05 Budget, Environment and Energy Daily, 2004, 10(9), 23–27.
12.
Associated Press, Senate Permits Drilling in Alaska Refuge, Fox News Report, November 4, 2005, 2.
13.
HerndonM., ANWR: The Last Frontier, Forum for Applied Research and Public Policy, 2002, 11, 72–78; PascaleK., ANWR: The Legislative Quagmire Surrounding Stakeholder Control and Protection, and the Practical Consequences of Allowing Exploration, Buffalo Environmental Law Journal, 2002, 33(2), 503–560.
14.
Herndon2002, 73.
15.
LorenzettiM., Alaska Still Focus of US Energy Policy Debate, Oil & Gas Journal, April 8, 2002, 8.
BrynerG.C., The National Energy Policy: Assessing Energy Policy Choices, Colorado Law Review, Spring, 2002, p. 1142.
18.
DomeniciP.V., EIA 2005 Annual Energy Outlook, Hearing Before the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, February 3, 2005, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1.
19.
LovaasD., EIA 2005 Annual Energy Outlook, Hearing Before the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources. February 3, 2005, U.S. Government Printing Office, 88.
20.
CarusoG. F., National Energy Policy, Hearing Before the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee, March 21, 2001, p. 9.
21.
ElandI., Terrorism: Cohen's Terrifying Tradeoff, CATO Institute Daily Report, September 2, 1998, 3.
22.
CoonC., ANWR: Drilling for Answers, Heritage Foundation Report, August 9, 2002, 3.
23.
Corn and Gelb2002.
24.
TomanM. A., International Oil Security: Problems and Policies, The Brookings Review, 2003, Spring, 14.
25.
Toman, 2003, 15.
26.
VaitheeswaranV.V., “A Survey of Oil: Oil in Troubled Waters,”Economist, 375(8424), 2005, 1–3.
27.
ShanahanJ.Time to Permit Oil Drilling in the Arctic Refuge, Heritage Foundation Report October 17, 1995, 4.
28.
CarusoG. F., National Energy Policy, Hearing Before the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee, March 21, 2001, 12.
29.
Corn & Gelb2002.
30.
HansenJames V.Is the President's National Energy Policy on the Right Track?Insight on the News, June 11, 2001, 12.
31.
In LaneE., Refuge in a storm: Nature lovers and oil drillers clash, The Seattle Times, May 20, 2001, A6.
32.
MurphyK.Alaskans Pin Hopes on Drilling in Refuge, The Los Angeles Times, April 15, 2002, C15.
33.
AthansM.A Fierce Fight for Alaska's Riches. The Baltimore Sun, May 6, 2001, B5.
34.
Coon2002, 3.
35.
Lane2001, A6; HansenJames V.Is the President's National Energy Policy on the Right Track?Insight on the News, June 11, 2001, 12.
36.
Corn & Gelb2002; WhitsittW., “National Gas Symposium, Symposium Before the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, January 24, 2005, U.S. Government Printing Office, 50–51.
37.
GrunwaldM., Some Facts Clear in the War of Spin Over Arctic Refuge, The Washington Post, March 6, 2002, A3.
38.
TruettJ.C. and JohnsonS.R., The Natural History of an Arctic Oil Field: Development and the Biota, Academic Press, New York, 2000; National Academies, Cumulative Effects of Oil and Gas Activities on Alaska's North Slope, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2003; ReynoldsJ.F. and TenhunenJ.D., Landscape Function and Disturbance in Arctic Tundra, Springer, New York, 1996.
39.
Pacific Northwest Pollution Prevention Center, Pollution Prevention Opportunities in Oil and Natural Gas Production, Drilling, and Exploration, Pollution Research Center, Seattle, 1993, 7–10; World Bank Group, Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook, World Bank Publishing, Geneva, 1998, 359–361.
40.
Ibid.
41.
Pascale2002, 180.
42.
YoungO.R. and ChapinF.S., Anthropogenic Impacts on Biodiversity in the Arctic, In ChapinF.S. and KornerC. (Eds.) Arctic and Alpine Biodiversity, Springer, New York, 1995; VanderZwaagD., The Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy, Arctic Council, and Multilateral Environmental Initiatives, Denver Journal of International Law and Policy, 30, 2002, 131–154.
43.
Pacific Northwest Pollution Prevention Center, 1993, 8; World Bank Group, 1998.
44.
ShaverG.R. and GiblinA.E., Plant Functional Types and Ecosystem Change in Arctic Tundras, In SmithT.M.ShugartH.H., and WoodwardF.I. (Eds.) Plant Functional Types: Their Relevance to Ecosystem Properties and Global Change, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1997, 102–152; Economist, Alaska and Oil: One State's Free Lunch, December 11, 2004, 29–31; WoodinS.J., Effects of acid Reposition on Vegetation, In WoodinS.J. and MarquissM. (Eds.) Ecology of Arctic Environments: Special Publication Number 13 of the British Ecological Society, Blackwell Science, London, 1997; PotterW., The Effects of Air Pollution and Acid Rain on Fish, Wildlife, and Their Habitats, U.S. Department of Interior, Washington, DC, 1982
45.
National Academies, 2003, 5.
46.
NossR.F., Wilderness Recovery: Thinking Big in Restoration Ecology, In CallicottJ.B. and NelsonM.P. (Eds.) The Great New Wilderness Debate, University of George Press, Athens, GA, 1998, 555; TerborghJ., The Big Things that Run the World – A Sequel to E.O. Wilson, Conservation Biology, 2(4), 1988, 402–403.
47.
National Academies2003, 3; United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Potential Impacts of Proposed Oil and Gas Development in the Arctic Refuge's Coastal Plane, 2001, Retrieved from http://www.arcticwildlife.org/fws/issues1.html.
48.
Pascale2002, 174; LedererN., Impacts of Petroleum Development in the Arctic: Response, Science, 245(4919), 1989, 766; CornL. M.GelbB., and BaldwinP., Arctic National Wildlife Reduge (ANWR): Controversies for the 108th Congress, CRS Issue Brief for Congress, September 29, 2004.
49.
United States Fish and Wildlife Service2001, 3–4; CornGelb, and Baldwin2004, 6–7; GilbertJ., New Technology and Opening up ANWR: The Keys to Resolving the U.S. Oil Supply-Demand Imbalance?Energy Exploration and Exploitation, 21(1), 2003, 73.
50.
CornM.L.KuminsL.C., and BaldwinP., The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, CRS Issue Brief for Congress, September 5, 1996, 9.
51.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, A Preliminary Review of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska Coastal Plain Resource Assessment: Report and Recommendation to the Congress of the United States and Final Legislative Environmental Impact Statement, August 29, 1995, 4.
52.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, A Preliminary Review of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska Coastal Plain Resource Assessment: Report and Recommendation to the Congress of the United States and Final Legislative Environmental Impact Statement, August 29, 1995, 4.
53.
Docherty2001; Pascale2002.
54.
Herndon2002, 76.
55.
U.S. Energy Information Administration, The Effects of the Alaska Oil and Natural Gas Provisions of H.R.4 and S.1766 on U.S. Energy Markets, June 15, 2005, retrieved from http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/aone/anwr.html.
56.
Pascale2002, 188; Gilbert2003; Pasquinelli2003.
57.
BrowneL., Panel Discussion on Oil Shocks and the United States Economy, CBS News Transcripts, February 10, 2002, 4.
58.
LeechI., The Energy Debate Over ANWR, Presentation to the Consortium on Energy Restructuring, March 17, 2005, 2.
59.
KuminsL., Alaska Oil Imports, CRS Report for Congress, April 5, 2000, 3.
60.
BadinelliR., Oil and the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Presentation to the Consortium on Energy Restructuring, March 17, 2005, 4; VaitheeswaranV. V., A Survey of Oil: Oil in Troubled Waters,”Economist, 375 (8424), 2005, 1–4.
International Energy Agency, Distributed Generation in Liberalized Electricity Markets, IEA Publishing, Paris, 2002.
63.
FriedmanS. and Homder-DixonT., Out of the Energy Box, Foreign Affairs, 83(6), 2004, 79.
64.
Union of Concerned Scientists, 2004.
65.
International Energy Agency2002; LovinsA., Small is Profitable: The Hidden Benefits of Making Electrical Resources the Right Size, Rocky Mountain Institute, Snowmass, CO, 2002.
66.
SissineF., Energy Efficiency: Budget, Oil Conservation, and Electricity Conservation Issues, CRS Issue Brief for Congress, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, 2002, 20.
67.
CapehhartB.MehtaP., and TurnerW., Distributed Generation and Your Energy Future, Cogeneration and Distributed Generation Journal, 18(4), 2003, 17–33; Lovins2002; PepermansG., Distributed Generation: Definition, Benefits, and Issues, Energy Policy, August, 2003, 21–29.
68.
In Natural Gas Week, ANWR Again Takes Congressional Spotlight as Debate Catches Fire, March 7, 2005, 7; U.S. Energy Information Administration, U.S. Retail Price of Gasoline, July, 1998, retrieved from http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/25opec/sld004.htm.
69.
KareyG., Scientists' Group Backs Hike in US Mileage Rules, Platt's Oilgram News, 79(119), 2001, 2–3; ColeC., Raising CAFÉ to 40 MPG Would Save 50 Billion Bbls of Oil, Oxy-Fuel News, 13(40), 2001, 15–19.
70.
Cole2001, 19.
71.
Lovaas2005, 91.
72.
SamuelsonR.J., Now do We Get Serious About Oil?Washington Post, October 11, 2001, A33.
73.
ForemanD., Wilderness: From Scenery to Nature, In ButlerTom (Ed.) Wild Earth: Wild Ideas for a World Out of Balance, Milkweed Editions, New York, 2002.
74.
LeopoldA., A Sand County Almanac, Ballantine Books, New York, 1947.
75.
In Docherty2001, 11.
76.
Noss1998.
77.
Noss1998, 544.
78.
WallerD.M., Getting Back to the Right Nature, In CallicottJ.B. and NelsonM. P. (Eds.) The Great New Wilderness Debate, University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA1998, 552.
79.
Foreman2002, 31.
80.
Leopold1947, ix.
81.
Leopold1947, 214.
82.
Wolke2003, 16.
83.
Docherty2001, 10.
84.
McCarthyT., War Over Arctic Oil, Time Magazine, February 19, 2001, 24.
85.
Burham2004, 23.
86.
RichardsonB., National Gas Symposium, Symposium Before the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, January 24, 2005, U.S. Government Printing Office, 3–5.