Metallurgical investigations aided by electron microscopy and associated techniques have been carried out on failed test specimens and bearings from service, to obtain information of use in the elucidation of the mechanisms of failure. Investigations have revealed that cracks initiating rolling contact fatigue can start at the surface and spread into the material, or start below the surface and spread outwards, the more dominant mechanism depending upon prevailing circumstances. Metallographic changes in surface material owing to rolling and sliding action, and subsurface microstructural changes at depths associated with the region of maximum Hertzian shearing stress can influence the mechanism of failure. Environment can affect the rate of crack propagation and mode of fracture; hydrogen embrittlement can be a contributory factor in catastrophic fracture, and non-metallic inclusions can have a dominant effect on the incidence of failure.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
ScottD.‘The effect of material properties, lubricant and environment on rolling contact fatigue’, Paper 10, Proc. Symp. Fatigue in Rolling Contact 1963, 103 (Instn Mech. Engrs, London).
2.
ScottD.BlackwellJ.‘The effect of material properties on rolling contact fatigue’, N.E.L. Rept 98 1963 (National Engineering Laboratory, East Kilbride, Glasgow).
3.
MikasE. B.HughelT. J.GertyJ. M.KnudsenA. C.‘The dimensional stability of a precision ball bearing material’, Trans. Am. Soc. Mater.196052, 307.
4.
JacksonE. G.‘Rolling contact evaluation of bearing materials and lubricants’, Paper No. 58LC-15, Trans. Am. Soc. lubric. Engrs19592 (1), 121.
5.
HarrisW. J.CohenM.‘Stabilization of the austenite–martensite transformation’, Trans. Am. Inst. Min. metall. Engrs1949180, 447.
6.
HelbegF.‘The pitting of rolled surfaces’ (in German), WerkstTech. MaschBau194939 (4), 111.
7.
WayS.‘Pitting due to rolling contact’, J. appl. Mech.19352 (3), A110.
8.
BarwellF. T.ScottD.‘The effect of lubricant on the pitting failure of ball bearings’, Engineering, Lond.1956182 (4713), 9.
9.
ScottD.‘Study of the effect of lubricant on the pitting failure of balls’, Paper 58, Conf. on Lubrication and Wear, Proc. Instn mech. Engrs 1957, 463–8, 881.
10.
ScottD.BlackwellJ.‘An accelerated test for the study of materials under rolling contact’, Proc. 1st Lubric. and Wear Convention 1963, 291 (Instn Mech. Engrs, London); N.E.L. Rept No. 99 1963 (National Engineering Laboratory, East Kilbride, Glasgow).
11.
ScottD.ScottH. M.‘The application of electron microscopy to the study of pitting failure of rolling bearings’, Proc. Eur. Reg. Conf. on Electron Microscopy (Delft) 1960, 1, 539; N.E.L. Rept LDR 19/60 £1960 (National Engineering Laboratory, East Kilbride, Glasgow).
12.
StudenokI. A.Makhon'koE. P.‘Nature of the white layers on the rolling surfaces of wagon wheels’, Tomsky Tomok. Univ.1957 (25180), 52.
13.
SeleznerN. N.‘Nature of the bright zone in the surface layer of friction’, Trud. Donetok. industr. instr.195719 (1591), 97.
14.
GrozinB. D.‘Development of a theory of friction and wear’, Akad. Nauk. S.S.S.R., Moscow1957, 158.
15.
BushJ. J.GrubeW. L.RobinsonG. H.‘Microstructural and residual stress changes in hardened steel due to rolling contact’, Proc. Symp. Rolling Contact Phenomena at General Motors 1960363; Rolling Contact Phenomena 1962, ed. BidwellJ. B. (Elsevier, Amsterdam).
16.
ForsythP. J. E.StubbingtonC. A.‘Slip-band extrusion effect observed in some aluminium alloys subjected to cyclic stresses’, J. Inst. Metals195483, 395.
17.
ScottD.BlackwellJ.‘Some effects of lubricant and temperature on failure in rolling contact’, Paper 2, Proc. 2nd Lubric. and Wear Convention 1964178 (Pt 3N), 75 (Instn Mech. Engrs, London); N.E.L. Rept No. 135 1964 (National Engineering Laboratory, East Kilbride, Glasgow).
18.
JonesA. B.‘Metallographic observations of ball bearing fatigue phenomena’, Proc. Am. Soc. Test. Mater.194646, 1; Special Tech. Pub. No. 70 1947, 35.
19.
GentileA. J.JordanE. G.MartinA. D.‘Phase transformations in high carbon, high hardness steels under contact loads’, Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Engrs1965233, 1085.
20.
O'BrienJ. L.KingA. H.‘Electron microscopy of stress induced alterations near inclusions on bearing steels’, Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs Paper 65-WA/CF-1, 1965.
21.
DaviesW. J.DayK. L.‘Surface fatigue in ball bearings, roller bearings, and gears in aircraft engines’, Paper 3, Proc. Symp. Fatigue in Rolling Contact 1963, 27 (Instn Mech. Engrs, London).
22.
O'BrienJ. L.KingA. H.‘Stress-induced microstructural changes and fatigue damage in hardened steel under contact-loading’, Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs Paper No. 65-LUB-14, 1965.
23.
MartinJ. A.BorgeseS.F.EberhardtA. D.‘Microstructural alterations of rolling bearing steel undergoing cyclic stressing’, Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs Paper No. 65-WA/SF-4, 1965.
24.
GrunbergL.ScottD.‘The acceleration of pitting failure by water in the lubricant’, J. Inst. Petrol.195844 (419), 406.
25.
LikhtmanV. I.ReninderP. A.KarpenkoG. V.‘Effect of a surface-active medium on the process of deformation of metals’, Akad. Nauk. S.S.S.R., Moscow 1954; D.S.I.R. translation 1958 (H.M.S.O., London).
26.
GalvinG. D.NaylorH.‘Effect of lubricants on the fatigue of steel and other metals’, Proc. 3rd Lubric. and Wear Convention 1965, 56 (Instn Mech. Engrs, London).
27.
GrunbergL.ScottD.‘The effect of additives on the water-induced pitting of ball bearings’, J. Inst. Petrol.196046 (440), 259.
28.
ScottD.‘Further data on the effect of additives on the water-induced pitting of ball bearings’, J. Inst. Petrol.196248 (457), 24.
29.
GrunbergL.JamiesonD. T.ScottD.LloydR. A.‘Hydrogen diffusion in water accelerated rolling surface fatigue’, Nature1960188 (4757), 1182.
30.
GrunbergL.JamiesonD. T.ScottD.‘Hydrogen penetration in water accelerated fatigue of rolling surfaces’, Phil. Mag.19638 (93), 1553.
DasB. N. et alN.M.L. Technical Journal19624 (3), 4.
33.
WorkeW. R.‘Some observations on the electron microscopy and fractography of embrittled steels’, 1963 (Battelle Memorial Inst. Report, Defence Metals Information Centre P 125 252).
34.
ScottD.BlackwellJ.‘The effect of material and hardness combination in rolling contact’, Proc. 4th Lubric. and Wear Convention (Netherlands) 1966 (in press); N.E.L. Rept 239 (National Engineering Laboratory, East Kilbride, Glasgow).
35.
ZaretskyE. V.ParkerR. J.AndersonW. J.MillerS. T.‘Effect of component differential hardness in rolling contact fatigue and load capacity’, N.A.S.A. Tech. Note D-2664 (Nat. Aero, and Space Administration, Washington, D.C.).
36.
KennedyN. G.‘Fatigue of curved surfaces in contact under repeated load cycles’, Proc. Intl Conf. on Fatigue of Metals 1957, 282 (Instn Mech. Engrs, London).
37.
StyriH.‘Fatigue strength of ball bearing races and heattreated 52100 steel specimens’, Proc. Am. Soc. Test. Mater.195151, 682.
