A course on the psychology of racism can be difficult and sensitive for both student and instructor. In this article, I describe the format and content for a seminar class about racism and psychological theories developed to explain its occurrence. Emphasizing the importance of evaluating theory (e.g., social learning theory, realistic conflict theory, genetic similarity theory, stages of racial identity, and social categorization theory) and supporting research helps students gain insight into social psychology's contributions toward understanding and preventing racism. Using multiple teaching methods averts potential problems related to the sensitive nature of the material. Course evaluations reveal that students learned a great deal from the course and enjoyed critically evaluating this issue in a formal manner.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AllportG. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
2.
AronsonE.BridgemanD. (1979). Jigsaw groups and the desegregated classroom: In pursuit of common goals. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 5, 438–446.
3.
AronsonE.StephanC.SikesJ.BlaneyN.SnappM. (1978). The jigsaw classroom. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
4.
BanduraA. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
5.
BanduraA. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
6.
BanksJ. A. (1997). Educating citizens in a multiracial society. New York: Teachers College Press.
7.
BlairI. V.BanajiM. V. (1996). Automatic and controlled processes in stereotype priming. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1142–1163.
8.
BronsteinP. A.QuinaK. (Eds.). (1988). Teaching a psychology of people: Resources for gender and sociocultural awareness. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
9.
CookS. W. (1985). Experimenting on social issues: The case of school desegregation. American Psychologist, 40, 452–460.
10.
CorvinS. A.WigginsF. (1989). An anti-racism training model for White professionals. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 17, 105–114.
11.
CostinF. (1985). Courage in the classroom. Teaching of Psychology, 12, 125–128.
12.
CrossW. E.Jr. (1971). The Negro to Black conversion experience: Toward a psychology of Black liberation. Black World, 20, 13–27.
13.
CrossW. E.Jr. (1978). The Cross and Thomas models of psychological nigrescence: A review. Journal of Black Psychology, 5, 13–31.
14.
CrossW. E.Jr. (1991). Shades of Black: Diversity in African-American identity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
15.
DarleyJ. M.GrossP. H. (1983). A hypothesis-confirming bias in labeling effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 832–845.
16.
DeutschM.CollinsM. E. (1951). Interracial housing: A psychological evaluation of a social experiment. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
17.
DevineP. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 420–431.
18.
DevineP. G. (1996). Exploring the interpersonal dynamics of inter-group contact. In SorrentinoR. M.HigginsE. T. (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition (Vol. 3, pp. 423–464). New York: Guilford.
19.
DevineP. G.ElliotA. J. (1995). Are racial stereotypes really fading? The Princeton trilogy revisited. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 1139–1150.
20.
DevineP. G.MonteithM. J. (1993). The role of discrepancy-associated affect in prejudice reduction. In MackieD. M.HamiltonD. L. (Eds.), Affect, cognition, and stereotyping: Interactive processes in group perception (pp. 317–344). New York: Academic.
21.
DollardJ. (1938). Hostility and fear in social life. Social Forces, 17, 15–26.
22.
DuckittJ. H. (1992). Patterns of prejudice: Group interests and intergroup attitudes. South African Journal of Psychology, 22, 147–156.
23.
FeaginJ. R. (1989). Racial and ethnic relations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
24.
FeaginJ. R. (1991). The continuing significance of race: Antiblack discrimination in public places. American Sociological Review, 56, 101–116.
25.
FestingerL.SchacterS.BackK. (1950). Social pressures in informal groups: A study of a housing community. New York: Harper.
26.
GaertnerS. L.DovidioJ. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. In DovidioJ. F.GaertnerS. L. (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism: Theory and research (pp. 61–89). New York: Academic.
27.
GainesS. O.Jr.ReedE. S. (1995). Prejudice: From Allport to DuBois. American Psychologist, 50, 96–103.
28.
HeesackerM. (1994). Portraits of adjustment. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
29.
HellerC.HawkinsJ. A. (1994). Teaching tolerance: Notes from the front line. Teachers College Record, 95, 337–368.
30.
HelmsJ. E. (Ed.). (1990). Black and White racial identity: Theory, research, and practice. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
31.
HelmsJ. E. (1993). I also said “White racial identity influences White researchers.”Counseling Psychologist, 21, 240–243.
32.
HigginsE. T.BarghJ. A. (1987). Social cognition and social perception. Annual Review of Psychology, 38, 369–425.
33.
HighlenP. S.ReynoldsA. L.AdamsE. M.HanleyT. C.MyersL. J.CoxC.SpeightS. (1988, August). Self-identity development model of oppressed people: Inclusive model for all? Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Atlanta, GA.
34.
HunterJ. A.PlatowM. J.HowardM. L.StringerM. (1996). Social identity and intergroup evaluative bias: Realistic categories and domain specific self-esteem in a conflict setting. European Journal of Social Psychology, 26, 631–647.
35.
JacksonJ. (1993). Realistic conflict group theory: A review and evaluation of the theoretical and empirical literature. Psychological Record, 43, 395–413.
36.
JonesJ. M. (1997). Prejudice and racism. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
37.
JussimL.MadonS.EcclesJ. (1996). Social perception, social stereotypes, and teacher expectations: Accuracy and the quest for the powerful self-fulfilling prophecy. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 28, 281–388.
38.
KhanS. R.LambertA. J. (1998). Observations of informal conversations: Ingroup favoritism vs. black-sheep effects. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 20, 263–269.
39.
KiselicaM. (1991). Reflections on a multicultural internship experience. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70, 126–130.
40.
LambertA. J.KhanS. R.LickelB. A.FrickeK. (1997). Mood and the correction of positive and negative stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1002–1016.
41.
LawrenceS. M.TatumB. D. (1997). White educators as allies: Moving from awareness to action. In FineM.WeisL.PowellL. C.WongMun L. (Eds.), Off White (pp. 333–342). New York: Routledge.
42.
LawryJ. D. (1990). Caritas in the classroom. College Teaching, 38, 83–87.
43.
LinvilleP.FischerG. W. (1993). Exemplar and abstraction models of perceived group variability and stereotypicality. Social Cognition, 11, 92–125.
44.
MargerM. (1991). Race and ethnic relations: American and global perspectives. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
45.
MathieV. A.BeinsB.BenjaminL. T.Jr.EwingM. M.HallC. C. I.HendersonB.McAdamD. W.SmithR. A. (1993). Promoting active learning in psychology courses. In McGovernT. V. (Ed.), Handbook for enhancing undergraduate education in psychology (pp. 183–214). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
46.
McConahayJ. B. (1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale. In DovidioJ. F.GaertnerS. L. (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 91–125). Orlando, FL: Academic.
47.
McKownC.WeinsteinR. S. (1997, May). Ethnicity and differential response to teacher expectations. Poster presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Society, Washington, DC.
48.
MonteithM. J.ZuwerinkJ. R.DevineP. G. (1994). Prejudice and prejudice reduction: Classic challenges, contemporary approaches. In DevineP. G.HamiltonD. L.OstromT. M. (Eds.), Social cognition: Impact on social psychology (pp. 324–346). New York: Academic.
49.
NwachukuU. T.IveyA. E. (1991). Culture-specific counseling: An alternative training model. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70, 106–111.
50.
OlzakS.NagelJ. (1986). Competitive ethnic relations. New York: Academic.
51.
PetersW.Producer & Director (1971). The eye of the storm [Film]. New York: American Broadcasting Company.
52.
PettigrewT. F. (1958). Personality and sociocultural factors and intergroup attitudes: A cross-cultural comparison. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2, 29–42.
53.
PettigrewT. F. (1985). New Black-White patterns: How best to conceptualize them?Annual Review of Sociology, 11, 329–346.
54.
PuenteA. E.BlanchE.CandlandD. K.DenmarkF. L.LamanC.LutskyN.ReidP. T.SchiavoR. S. (1993). Toward a psychology of variance: Increasing the presence and understanding of ethnic minorities in psychology. In McGovernT. V. (Ed.), Handbook for enhancing undergraduate education in psychology (pp. 71–92). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
55.
RichardH. W. (1996). Filmed in black and white: Teaching the concept of racial identity at a predominantly White university. Teaching of Psychology, 23, 159–161.
56.
RobinsonT. (1992). Transforming at-risk educational practices by understanding and appreciating differences. Elementary School Guidance & Counseling, 27, 84–95.
57.
RosenthalR.JacobsonL. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom: Teacher expectation and student intellectual development. New York: Holt, Rhinehart, & Winston.
58.
RushtonJ. P. (1989). Genetic similarity, human altruism, and group selection. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12, 503–559.
59.
SabnaniH. B.PonterottoJ. G.BorodovskyL. G. (1991). White racial development and cross-cultural counselor training: A stage model. Counseling Psychologist, 19, 76–102.
60.
SadkerM.SadkerD. (1985, March). Sexism in the schoolroom of the 80s. Psychology Today, pp. 54–57.
61.
SeegmillerB. R. (1995). Teaching an undergraduate course on intrafamily abuse across the lifespan. Teaching of Psychology, 22, 108–112.
62.
SherifM. (1966). Group conflict and cooperation: Their social psychology. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
63.
SherifM.HarveyO. J.WhiteB. J.HoodW. R.SherifC. (1961). Intergroup conflict and cooperation: The robber's cave experiment. Norman: Oklahoma Book Exchange.
64.
SteeleC. M. (1992, April). Race and the schooling of Black Americans. The Atlantic Monthly, pp. 68–78.
65.
SteeleC. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 613–629.
66.
SteeleC. M.AronsonJ. (1995). Stereotype threat and intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797–811.
67.
StephanW. G. (1978). School desegregation: An evaluation of predictions made in Brown vs. Board of Education. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 217–238.
68.
TajfelH. (1982). Social psychology of intergroup attitudes. Annual Review of Psychology, 33, 1–39.
69.
TatumB. D. (1992). Talking about race, learning about racism: The application of racial identity development theory in the classroom. Harvard Educational Review, 62, 1–24.
70.
TatumB. D. (1994). Teaching White students about racism: The search for White allies and the restoration of hope. Teachers College Record, 95, 462–476.
71.
TokarD. M.SwansonJ. L. (1991). An investigation of the validity of Helms's model of White racial identity development. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 296–301.
72.
Torney-PurtaJ. (1995). Education in multicultural settings: Perspectives from global and international educational programs. In HawleyW. D.JacksonA. (Eds.), Toward a common destiny: Improving race and ethnic relations in America (pp. 341–370). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
73.
WaltersK. L.SimoniJ. M. (1993). Lesbian and gay male group identity attitudes and self-esteem: Implications for counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 40, 94–99.
74.
WolfeC. T.SpencerS. J. (1996). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their overt and subtle influence in the classroom. American Behavioral Scientist, 40, 176–185.
75.
WordC. O.ZannaM. P.CooperJ. (1974). The nonverbal mediation of self-fulfilling prophecies in interracial interaction. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10, 109–120.
76.
WyerR. S.Jr.MartinL. L. (1986). Person memory: The role of traits, group stereotypes, and specific behaviors in the cognitive representation of persons. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 661–675.
77.
ZajoncR. B. (1968). Attitudinal effects of mere exposure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Monographs Supplement, 9, 1–27.
