This article presents an inexpensive program using invertebrates in the classroom. The following information is provided: (a) the availability of review articles; (b) how to maintain and procure subjects; (c) where to obtain apparatus; and (d) how to prepare demonstrations of classical, instrumental, and avoidance conditioning.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AbramsonC. I. (1981). Passive avoidance in the California harvester ant Pogonmyremex californicus. Journal of General Psychology, 104, 29–40.
2.
AbramsonC. I. (1983, April). Resistance to extinction as a function of reinforcement magnitude and punishment in the harvester ant. Paper presented at the meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, New York.
3.
AbramsonC. I. (1985). Aversive conditioning in honeybees (Apis mellifera). Manuscript submitted for publication.
4.
AbramsonC. I.BittermanM. E. (1985). Latent inhibition in honeybees (Apis mellifera). Manuscript submitted for publication.
5.
AbramsonC. I.CollierD. M.MarcucellaH. (1977). An aversive conditioning unit for ants. Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation, 9, 505–507.
6.
AbramsonC. I.MilerJ.MannD. W. (1982). An olfactory shuttlebox and runway for insects. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 3, 151–159.
7.
AbramsonC. I.RussR. C. (1985). Demonstration of discretetrial signalled avoidance learning in the carpenter ant (Componotus herculeanus). Manuscript submitted for publication.
8.
AckilJ. E.WardE. F. (1982). Chickens in the classroom: Introductory laboratory courses in experimental psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 9, 107–108.
9.
AllowayT. M. (1973). Learning in insects except apoidea. In CorningW. C.DyalJ. A.WillowsA. O. D. (Eds.), Invertebrate learning: Vol. 2. Arthropods and gastropod mollusks (pp. 131–171). New York: Plenum.
10.
ArbitJ. (1964). Learning in annelids and attempts at the chemical modification of this behavior. Animal Behaviour, 13(Suppl. 1), 83–87.
11.
BallH. J. (1972). A system for recording activity of small insects. Journal of Economic Entomology, 65, 129–132.
12.
BestJ. B.RubinsteinI. (1962). Maze learning and associated behavior in planaria. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 560–566.
13.
BestR. L. (1978). Living arthropods in the classroom.Burlington, NC: Carolina Biological Supply Company.
14.
BittermanM. E.MenzelR.FietzA.SchäferS. (1983). Classical conditioning of proboscis extension in honeybees (Apis mellifera). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 97, 107–119.
15.
BlockR. A.McConnellJ. V. (1967). Classically conditioned discrimination in the planarian, Dugesia dorotocephala. Nature, 215, 1465–1466.
16.
BookerR.QuinnW. G. (1981). Conditioning of leg position in normal and mutant Drosophila. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 78, 3940–3944.
17.
BullockT. H.HorridgeG. A. (1965). Structure and function of the nervous systems of invertebrates (Vols. 1–2). San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
18.
ChenW. Y.ArandaL. C.LucoJ. V. (1970). Learning and long- and short-term memory in cockroaches. Animal Behavior, 18, 725–732.
19.
CorningW. C. (1964). Evidence of right-left discrimination in planarians. Journal of Psychology, 58, 131–139.
20.
CorningW. C.DyalJ. A.WillowsA. O. D. (1973). Invertebrate learning (Vols. 1–2). New York: Plenum.
21.
CorningW. C.DyalJ. A.WillowsA. O. D. (1975). Invertebrate learning (Vol. 3). New York: Plenum.
22.
CorningW. C.FreedS. (1968). Planarian behavior and biochemistry. Nature, 219, 1227–1229.
23.
CorningW. C.KellyS. (1973). Platyhelminthes: The turbellarians. In CorningW. C.DyalJ. A.WillowsA. O. D. (Eds.), Invertebrate learning: Vol. 1. Protozoans through annelids (pp. 171–224). New York: Plenum.
24.
CorningW. C.RatnerS. C. (Eds.). (1967). Chemistry of learning.New York: Plenum.
25.
CorningW. C.RiccioD. (1970). The planarian controversy. In ByrneW. (Ed.), Molecular approaches to learning and memory (pp. 107–150). New York: Academic.
26.
CouvillonP. A.BittermanM. E. (1980). Some phenomena of associate learning in honeybees. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 94, 878–885.
27.
CouvillonP. A.BittermanM. E. (1982). Compound conditioning in honeybees. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 96, 192–199.
28.
CouvillonP. A.BittermanM. E. (1984). The overlearning-extinction effect and successive negative contrast in honeybees (Apis mellifera). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 98, 100–109.
29.
CouvillonP. A.KlosterhalfenS.BittermanM. E. (1983). Analysis of overshadowing in honeybees. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 97, 154–166.
30.
CrawfordF. T.SkeenL. C. (1967). Operant responding in the planarian: A replication study. Psychological Reports, 20, 1023–1027.
31.
DattaL. G. (1962). Learning in the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris. American Journal of Psychology, 75, 531–553.
32.
DeCarloL. T.AbramsonC. I. (1985). Time allocation as a measure of behavior in the ant. Manuscript submitted for publication.
33.
DeJianneD.McGuireT. R.Pruzan-HotchkissA. (1985). Conditioned suppression of proboscis extension in Drosophila melanogaster. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 99, 74–80.
34.
DrudgeO. W.PlattS. A. (1979). A versatile maze for learning and geotaxic selection in Drosophila melanogaster. Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation, 11, 503–506.
35.
DudaiY. (1977). Properties of learning and memory in Drosophila melanogaster. Journal of Comparative Physiology, 114, 69–89.
36.
DyalJ. A. (1973). Behavior modification in annelids. In CorningW. C.DyalJ. A.WillowsA. O. D. (Eds.), Invertebrate learning (Vol. 1). Protozoans through annelids (pp. 225–290). New York: Plenum.
37.
EbelingW.ReiersonD. A.WagnerR. E. (1968). Influence of repellency on the efficacy of blatticides. IV. Comparison of four cockroach species. Journal of Economic Entomology, 61, 1213–1219.
38.
EbelingW.WagnerR. E.ReiersonD. A. (1966). Influence of repellency on the efficacy of blatticides. I. Learned modification of behavior of the German cockroach. Journal of Economic Entomology, 59, 1374–1388.
39.
FantlS.NevinJ. A. (1965). Classical discriminations in planarians. Worm Runner's Digest, 7, 32–34.
40.
FarleyJ.AlkonD. L. (1985). Cellular mechanisms of learning, memory, and information storage. Annual Review of Psychology, 36, 419–494.
41.
FleerR. (1972). Some behavioral observations on the ant P. californicus, with special reference to habit-reversal learning. Dissertation Abstracts International, 33, 2370. (University Microfilms No. 72–30, 477).
42.
FleerR. E.WyersE. J. (1963). Partial reinforcement in the ant Pogonomymex californicus. American Psychologist, 18, 444.
43.
FreckletonW. C.Jr.WahlstenD. (1968). Carbon dioxide induced amnesia in the cockroach Periplaneta americana. Psychonomic Science, 12, 179–180.
44.
GriffardC. D. (1963). Classical conditioning of the planarian Phagocata gracilis to water flow. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 56, 597–600.
45.
HassellM. P.SouthwoodT. R. E. (1978). Foraging strategies of insects. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 9, 75–98.
46.
HerzM. J.PeekeH. V. S.WyersE. J. (1967). Classical conditioning of the extension response in the earthworm. Physiology and Behavior, 2, 409–411.
47.
HewittJ. K.FulkerD. W.HewittC. A. (1983). Genetic architecture of olfactory discriminative avoidance conditioning in Drosophila melanogaster. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 97, 52–58.
48.
HuntK.ShieldsR. (1978). Using gerbils in the undergraduate operant laboratory. Teaching of Psychology, 5, 210–211.
49.
KostowskiW.BeckJ.MeszarosJ. (1965). Drugs affecting the behaviour and spontaneous bioelectric activity of the central nervous system in the ant, Formica rufa. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 17, 253–255.
50.
KostowskiW.TarchalskaB. (1972). The effects of some drugs affecting brain 5-HT on the aggressive behaviour and spontaneous electrical activity of the central nervous system of the ant, Formica rufa. Brain Research, 38, 143–149.
51.
LeemingF. C.LittleG. L. (1977). Escape learning in houseflies (Musca domestica). Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 91, 260–269.
52.
LongoN. (1964). Probability learning and habit reversal in the cockroach. American Journal of Psychology, 77, 29–41.
53.
LongoN. (1970). A runway for the cockroach. Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation, 2, 118–119.
54.
LutzF. E.WelchP. S.GaltsoffP. S.NeedhamJ. G. (Eds.). (1959). Culture methods for invertebrate animals.New York: Dover. (Original work published 1937).
55.
MarianR. W.AbramsonC. I. (1982). Earthworm behavior in a modified running wheel. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 3, 67–74.
56.
MartinsenD. L.KimeldorfD. J. (1972). Conditioned spatial avoidance behavior of ants induced by X-rays. Psychological Record, 22, 225–232.
57.
McConnellJ. V. (Ed.). (1967a). A manual of psychological experiments on planarians.Ann Arbor, MI: Journal of Biological Psychology.
58.
McConnellJ. V. (1967b). Specific factors influencing planarian behavior. In CorningW. C.RatnerS. C. (Eds.), Chemistry of learning (pp. 217–233). New York: Plenum.
59.
McGuireT. R. (1984). Learning in three species of Diptera: The blow fly Phormia regina, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, and the house fly Musca domestica. Behavior Genetics, 14, 479–526.
60.
MenzelR.BittermanM. H. (1983). Learning by honeybees in an unnatural situation. In HuberF.MarklL. (Eds.), Behavioral physiology and neuroethology (pp. 206–215). Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
61.
MenzelR.ErberJ. (1972). The influence of the quantity of reward on the learning performance in honeybees. Behaviour, 41, 27–42.
62.
MillerT.BrunerL. J.FukutoT. R. (1971). The effects of light, temperature, and DDT poisoning on housefly locomotion and flight muscle activity. Pesticide Biochemistry and Psysiology, 1, 483–491.
63.
MorganR. F. (1981). Learning in submerged Formica rufa. Psychological Reports, 49, 63–69.
64.
NichollsR. J.PotterR. M. (1982). An inexpensive computer and interface for research in the behavioral sciences. Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation, 14, 532–533.
65.
PeekeH. V. S.HerzM. J.WyersE. G. (1967). Forward conditioning, backward conditioning and pseudoconditioning sensitization in the earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris). Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 64, 534–536.
66.
PlantL. (1980). The gerbil jar: A basic home experience in operant conditioning. Teaching of Psychology, 7, 109.
67.
PritchattD. (1970). Further studies on the avoidance behavior of Periplaneta americana to electric shock. Animal Behaviour, 18, 485–492.
68.
QuinnW. G. (1984). Work in invertebrates on the mechanisms underlying learning. In MarlerP.TerraceH. S. (Eds.), The biology of learning (pp. 197–246). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
69.
QuinnW. G.HarrisW. A.BenzerS. (1974). Conditioned behavior in Drosophila melanogaster. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 71, 708–712.
70.
RamosF. (1966). Rate of extinction as a function of varying schedule of reinforcement in the harvester ant P. californicus. Unpublished master's thesis, California College, Los Angeles, CA.
71.
RatnerS. C. (1967). Annelids and learning: A critical review. In CorningW. C.RatnerS. C. (Eds.), Chemistry of learning (391–406). New York: Plenum.
72.
RatnerS. C.MillerK. R. (1959a). Classical conditioning in earthworms, Lumbricus terrestris. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 52, 102–105.
73.
RatnerS. C.MillerK. R. (1959b). Effects of spacing of training and ganglia removal on conditioning in earthworms. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 52, 667–672.
74.
RatnerS. C.SteinD. G. (1965). Responses of worms to light as a function of intertrial interval and ganglion removal. Journal of Comparative and Psysiological Psychology, 59, 301–305.
75.
RayA. J. (1968). Instrumental light avoidance by the earthworm. Communications in Behavioral Biology, 1, 205–208.
76.
ReynierseJ. H.RatnerS. C. (1964). Acquisition and extinction in the earthworm, Lumbricus terrestris. Psychological Record, 14, 383–387.
77.
RobackerD. C.AmbroseJ. T. (1978). Random partial reinforcement in the honeybee: Effect on asymptotic performance and resistance to extinction. Journal of Apiculture Research, 17, 182–187.
78.
RobinsonG. H. (1979). Programming experiments with pocket programmable calculators. Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation, 11, 61–63.
79.
RowlandD. L.JordanE. K.OrsonM. (1984). On the use of chicks as experimental laboratory subjects. Teaching of Psychology, 11, 45–46.
80.
RubadeauD. O.ConradK. A. (1963). An apparatus to demonstrate and measure operant behavior of arthropoda. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 6, 429–430.
81.
SahleyC. L. (1984). Behavior theory and invertebrate learning. In MarlerP.TerraceH. S. (Eds.), The biology of learning (pp. 181–196). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
82.
SchneirlaT. C. (1933). Motivation and efficiency in ant learning. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 15, 243–266.
83.
SchneirlaT. C. (1943). The nature of ant learning: II. The intermediate stage of segmental maze adjustment. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 35, 149–176.
84.
SigurdsonJ. E. (1981a). Automated discrete-trials techniques of appetitive conditioning in honeybees. Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation, 13, 1–10.
85.
SigurdsonJ. E. (1981b). Measurement of consummatory behavior in honeybees. Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation, 13, 308–310.
86.
SimmelE. C.RamosF. (1965). Spatial-probability learning in ants. American Zoologist, 153, 228.
87.
StrattonL. O.ColemanW. P. (1972). Maze learning and orientation in the fire ant (Solenopsis saevissima). Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 83, 7–12.
88.
SzymanskiJ. S. (1912). Modification of the innate behavior of cockroaches. Journal of Animal Behavior, 2, 81–90.
89.
ThompsonR.McConnellJ. V. (1955). Classical conditioning in the planarian, Dugesia dorotocephala. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 48, 65–68.
90.
ThorpeW. H.DavenportD. (Eds.). (1964). Learning and associated phenomena in invertebrates. Animal Behavior Supplement 1, London: Bailliere, Tindall & Cassell.
VowlesD. M. (1964). Olfactory learning and brain lesions in the wood ant (Formica rufa). Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 58, 105–111.
93.
VowlesD. M. (1967). Interocular transfer, brain lesions, and maze learning in the wood ant Formica rufa. In CorningW. C.RatnerS. C. (Eds.), Chemistry of learning (pp. 425–447). New York: Plenum.
94.
WeissC. S. (1980). An inexpensive animal laboratory course. Teaching of Psychology, 7, 193–195.
95.
WellsP. H. (1973). Honey bees. In CorningW. C.DyalJ. A.WillowsA. O. D. (Eds.), Invertebrate learning (Vol. 2). Anthropods and gastropod mollusks (pp. 173–185). New York: Plenum.
96.
WolachA. H. (1979). Programming schedules of reinforcement with integrated circuits.Chicago: K.D.V.H.E.
97.
WyersE. J.PeekeH. V. S.HerzM. J. (1964). Partial reinforcement and resistance to extinction in the earthworm. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 57, 113–116.
98.
ZellnerD. K. (1966). Effects of removal and regeneration of the suprapharyngeal ganglion on learning, retention, extinction and negative movements in the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris L. Physiology and Behavior, 1, 151–159.