In this article, we review 4 classes of models of socially shared cognition and behavior: supraindividual models, information-processing models, communication models, and social interaction models. Our review draws on research and theory in social psychology, sociology, and organization behavior. We conclude that these innovative perspectives on socially shared behavior represent a new approach to the study of groups and are distinct from traditional models of the group mind and crowd behavior. The key processes implicated in these models focus on the potency of immediate interaction, reciprocal influence processes between individuals and groups, goal-directed behavior, negotiated processing of information and ideas, and the maintenance and enhancement of social identity. This approach to socially shared understanding is not antagonistic toward the analysis of individual-level processes but rather maintains that individual-level processes are necessary but not sufficient to build a social psychology of shared understanding.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Allport, F. (1924). Social psychology. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin.
2.
Allport, F. (1961). The contemporary appraisal of an old problem. Contemporary Psychology, 6, 195-196.
3.
Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
4.
Anderson, J. R. (1995). Cognitive psychology and its implications (4th ed.). New York: Freeman.
5.
Asch, S. (1952). Social psychology. New York: Prentice Hall.
6.
Asch, S. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 19, 31-35.
7.
Asch, S. E. (1956). Studies of independence and submission to group pressure: I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs, 70(9, Whole No. 417).
8.
Bargh, J. (1991). Auto-motives: Preconscious determinants of social interaction. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition (pp. 93-130). New York: Guilford.
9.
Becker, H. S. (1963). Outsiders. New York: Free Press.
10.
Berger, P., & Luckmann, T. (1966). The social construction of reality. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
11.
Best, J. (1989). Introduction: Typifications of social problems' construction. In J. Best (Ed.), Images of issues. New York: Aldine.
12.
Billig, M. (1991). Ideology and opinions: Studies in rhetorical psychology. London: Sage.
13.
Blumer, H. (1969). Symbolic interactionism: Perspective and method. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
14.
Brewer, M. B. (1991). The social self: On being the same and different at the same time. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 475-482.
15.
Brewer, M. B., & Gardner, W. (1996). Who is this “we”?: Levels of collective identity and self-representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 83-93.
16.
Campbell, D. (1958). Common fate, similarity, and other indices of the status of aggregates of persons as social entities. Behavioral Science, 3, 14-25.
17.
Campbell, J. (1959). Masks of god. New York: Viking.
18.
Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Salas, E., & Converse, S. (1993). Shared mental models in expert team decision making. In N. J. Castellan (Ed.), Individual and group decision making (pp. 221-246). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
19.
Caporael, L. R. (1997). The evolution of truly social cognition: The core configurations model. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 1(4), 276-298.
20.
Chorus, A. (1953). The basic law of rumor. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 48, 313-314.
21.
Clark, H. H. (1985). Language use and language users. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (3rd ed., pp. 179-231). New York: Random House.
22.
Clark, H. H., & Brennan, S. E. (1991). Grounding in communication. In L. Resnick, J. Levine, & S. D. Teasley (Eds.), Perspectives on socially shared cognition (pp. 127-149). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
23.
Clark, H. H., & Marshall, C. E. (1981). Definite reference and mutual knowledge. In A. K. Joshi, B. L. Webber, & I. A. Sag, (Eds.), Elements of discourse understanding (pp. 10-63). New York: Cambridge University Press.
24.
Clark, N. K., & Stephenson, G. M. (1989). Group remembering. In P. B. Paulus (Ed.), Psychology of group influence (pp. 357-391). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
25.
Cohen, M. D., March, J. C., & Olsen, J. P. (1972). A garbage can model of organizational choice. Bridgeport, CT: Wiener. (Original work published 1972)
26.
Conrad, P., & Schneider, J. (1980). Deviance and medicalization: From badness to sickness. St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
27.
Couch, C. J. (1984). Symbolic interaction and generic sociological principles. Symbolic Interaction, 7, 1-13.
28.
Couch, C. J. (1989). Social processes and relationship: A formal approach. Dix Hills, NY: General Hall.
29.
Couch, C. J. (1992). Toward a formal theory of social processes. Social Interaction, 15, 117-134.
30.
Couch, C. J., & Hintz, R. (1975). Constructing social life. Champaign, IL: Stipes.
31.
Couch, C. J., Saxton, S. L., & Katovich, M.A. (Eds.). (1986a). Studies in symbolic interaction: A research annual: The Iowa School, supplement 2 (Part A). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
32.
Couch, C. J., Saxton, S. L., & Katovich, M. A. (Eds.). (1986b). Studies in symbolic interaction: A research annual: The Iowa School, supplement 2 (Part B). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
33.
Davis, F. (1979). Yearning for yesterday. New York: Free Press.
34.
Davis, J. H. (1992). Some compelling intuitions about group consensus decisions, theoretical and empirical research, and interpersonal aggregation phenomena: Selected examples 1950-1990. Organization Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 52(1), 3-38.
35.
Dimaggio, P., & Powell, W. W. (1991). Introduction. In W. W. Powell & P. Dimaggio (Eds.), The new institutionalism in organizational analysis (pp. 1-38). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
36.
Durkheim, E. (1964). The rules of the sociological method. New York: Free Press.
37.
Durkheim, E. (1965). Suicide: A study in sociology. New York: Free Press.
38.
Durkheim, E. (1984). The division of labor in society. New York: Free Press.
39.
Erikson, K. (1963). Wayward puritans. New York: Wiley.
40.
Festinger. L. (1950). Informal social communication. Psychological Review, 57, 271-282.
41.
Festinger, L., Pepitone, E. A. B., & Newcomb, T. (1952). Some consequences of deindividuation in a group. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47, 382-389.
42.
Fine, G. (1979). Small groups and culture creation: Idioculture of Little League baseball teams. American Sociological Review, 44, 733-745.
43.
Fine. G. (1984). Negotiated orders and organizational cultures. Annual Review of Sociology, 10, 239-262.
44.
Fine, G. (1990). Organizational time: Temporal demands and the experience of work in restaurant kitchens. Social Forces, 69(1), 95-114.
45.
Fine, G., & Christophorides, L. (1991). Dirty birds, filthy immigrants, and the English sparrow war: Metaphorical linkage in constructing social problems. Symbolic Interaction, 14, 375-393.
46.
Flavell, J. H., & Wellman, H. M. (1977). Metamemory. In R. V. Kail & S. W. Hagen (Eds.), Perspectives on the development of memory and cognition (pp. 3-33). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
47.
Fleming, J. H., & Darley, J. M. (1991). Mixed messages: The multiple audience problem and strategic communication. Social Cognition, 9(1), 25-46.
48.
Forgas, J. P. (1981). Social episodes and group milieu: A study in social cognition. British Journal of Social Psychology, 20(2), 77-87.
49.
Freud, S. (1922). Group psychology and the analysis of the ego (J. Strachey, Trans.). London and Vienna: International Psychoanalytic Press. (Original work published 1921)
50.
Fussell, S. R., & Krauss, R. M. (1989a). The effects of intended audience on message production and comprehension: Reference in a common ground framework. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 203-219.
51.
Fussell, S. R., & Krauss, R. M. (1989b). Understanding friends and strangers: The effects of audience design on message comprehension. European Journal of Social Psychology, 19, 509-525.
52.
Fussell, S. R., & Krauss, R. M. (1991). Accuracy and bias in estimates of others' knowledge. European Journal of Social Psychology, 21, 445-454.
53.
Gersick, C. J. C. (1988). Time and transition in work teams: Toward a new model of group development. Academy of Management Journal, 31, 9-41.
54.
Gieryn, T. (1983). Boundary-work and the demarcation of science from non-science: Strains and interests in professional ideologies of scientists. American Sociological Review, 48, 781-795.
55.
Gigone, D., & Hastie, R. (1993). The common knowledge effect: Information sharing and group judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 959-974.
56.
Goffman, E. (1963). Behavior in public places. New York: Free Press.
57.
Goffman, E. (1969). Strategic interaction. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
58.
Goffman, E. (1974). Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
59.
Goodman, P. S., & Shah, S. (1992). Familiarity and work group outcomes. In S. Worchel, W. Wood, & J. A. Simpson (Eds.), Group process and productivity (pp. 276-298). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
60.
Gray, T. (1892). An elegy wrote in a country church yard. In T. H. Ward (Ed.), The English poets (Vol. 3, pp. 331-335). London: MacMillan. (Original work published 1750)
61.
Gregory, S., Jr. (1983). A quantitative analysis of temporal symmetry in microsocial relations. American Sociological Review, 48, 129-135.
62.
Gregory, S., Jr., & Lewis, J. (1988). Symbols of collective memory: The social process of memorializing May 4, 1970, at Kent State University. Symbolic Interaction, 11, 213-233.
63.
Gross, E. (1986). The social construction of historical events through public dramas. Symbolic Interaction, 9, 179-200.
64.
Gruenfeld, D. H., & Hollingshead, A. B. (1993). Sociocognition in workgroups: The evolution of group integrative complexity and its relation to task performance. Small Group Research, 24(3). 383-405.
65.
Hardin, C., & Higgins, E. T. (1995). Shared reality: How social verification makes the subjective objective. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior, (3rd ed., pp. 28-842). New York: Guilford.
66.
Harris, J. E. (1978). External memory aids. In M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, & R. N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory (pp. 172-180). London: Academic.
67.
Hartwick, J., Sheppard, B. H., & Davis, J. H. (1982). Group remembering: Research and implications. In R. A. Guzzo (Ed.), Improving group decision making in organizations (pp. 41-72). San Diego, CA: Academic.
68.
Hatfield, E., Caccioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. L. (1994). Emotional contagion. Paris: Cambridge University Press.
69.
Hayes, P. J., Ford, K. M., & Agnew, N. (1994). On babies and bathwater: A cautionary tale. AI Magazine, 15(4), 15-26.
70.
Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley.
71.
Higgins, E. T. (1981). The “communication game:” Implications for social cognition and persuasion. In E. T. Higgins, C. P. Herman, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Social cognition: The Ontario symposium (pp. 343-392). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
72.
Higgins, E. T. (1992). Achieving “shared reality” in the communication game: A social action that creates meaning. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 13(2), 141-154.
73.
Higgins, E. T., & McCann, C. D. (1984). Social encoding and subsequent attitudes, impressions, and memory: “Context-driven” and motivational aspects of processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 26-39.
74.
Higgins, E. T., & Rholes, W. S. (1978). “Saying is believing”: Effects of message modification on memory and liking for the person described. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 14, 363-378.
75.
Higgins, E. T., & Sorrentino, R. M. (Eds.). (1990). Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 2). New York: Guilford.
76.
Hilgartner, S., & Bosk, C. (1988). The rise and fall of social problems: A public arenas model. American Journal of Sociology, 94, 53-78.
77.
Hill, G. W. (1982). Group versus individual performance: Are N+1 heads better than one?Psychological Bulletin, 91, 517-539.
78.
Hinsz, V. B. (1990). Cognitive and consensus processes in group recognition: Memory performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 705-718.
79.
Hinsz, V. B., Tindale, R. S., & Vollrath, D. A. (1997). The emerging conceptualization of groups as information processors. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 43-64.
80.
Hodson, R. (1991). The active worker: Compliance and autonomy at the workplace. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 20, 47-78.
81.
Holstein, J. A., & Miller. G. (Eds.). (1993). Constructionist controversies. New York: Aldine.
82.
Hood, T. C. (1984). Character is the fundamental illusion. Quarterly Journal of Ideology, 8, 4-12.
83.
Hutchins, E. (1991). The social organization of distributed cognition. In L. Resnick, J. Levine, & S. Teasdale (Eds.), Perspectives on socially shared cognition (pp. 283-307). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
84.
Ickes, W., & Gonzalez, R. (1994). “Social” cognition and social cognition: From the subjective to the intersubjective. Small Group Research, 25(2), 294-315.
85.
Ickes, W., & Tooke, W. (1988). The observational method: Studying the interaction of minds and bodies. Chichester, England: Wiley.
86.
Ickes, W., Robertson, E., Tooke, W., & Teng, G. (1986). Naturalistic social cognition: Methodology, assessment, and validation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 66-82.
87.
Ickes, W., Stinson, L., Bissonnette, V., & Garcia, S. (1990). Naturalistic social cognition: Empathic accuracy in mixed-sex dyads. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 730-742.
88.
Janis, I. L. (1972). Victims of groupthink. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
89.
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1983). Mental models. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
90.
Kamens, D. H. (1977). Legitimizing myths and educational organization: The relationship between organizational ideology and formal structure. American Sociological Review, 42, 208-219.
91.
Katovich, M., & Couch, C. J. (1992). The nature of social pasts and their use as foundations for situated action. Symbolic Interaction, 15, 25-47.
92.
Keysar, B., Ginzel, L. E., & Bazerman, M. H. (1995). States of affairs and states of mind: The effect of knowledge of beliefs. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 64(3), 283-293.
93.
King, A., & Fine. G. (1998). Ford on the line. Unpublished manuscript, Northwestern University.
94.
Klimoski, R., & Mohammed, S. (1994). Team mental model: Construct or metaphor?Journal of Management, 20(2), 403-437.
95.
Latané, B. (1997). Dynamic social impact: The societal consequences of human interaction. In C. McGarty & A. Haslam (Eds.), The message of social psychology: Perspectives on mind and society (pp. 200-220). Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell.
96.
Latané, B., & L'Herrou, T. (1996). Spatial clustering in the conformity game: Dynamic social impact in electronic groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1218-1230.
97.
LeBon, G. (1960). Psychology of Crowds (R. K. Merton, Trans.). New York: Viking Press. (Original work published 1896)
98.
Levine, J., Resnick, L., & Higgins, E. (1993). Social foundations of cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 585-612.
99.
Lewis, J. D., & Smith, R. L. (1980). American sociology and pragmatism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
100.
Liang, D. W., Moreland, R. L., & Argote, L. (1995). Group versus individual training and group performance: The mediating role of transactive memory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 384-393.
101.
Mackay, C. (1932). Extraordinary popular delusions and the madness of crowds. Boston: Page. (Original work published 1852)
102.
Maines, D., Sugrue, N., & Katovich, M. (1983). G. H. Mead's theory of the past. American Sociological Review, 48, 161-173.
103.
McDougall, W. (1920). The group mind: A sketch of the principles of collective psychology with some attempt to apply them to the interpretation of national life and character. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
104.
McGrath, J. E., & Hollingshead, A. B. (1994). Groups interacting with technology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
105.
McPhail, C. (1991). The myth of the madding crowd. New York: de Gruyter.
106.
Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
107.
Melucci, A. (1988). Getting involved: Identity and mobilization in social movements. In B. Klandermans, H. Kriesi, & S. Tarrow (Eds.), International social movement research (Vol. 1, p. 329-348). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
108.
Miller, D. E., Hintz, R., & Couch, C. J. (1975). The elements and structure of openings. Sociological Quarterly, 16(4), 479-499.
109.
Mills, C. W. (1942). The professional ideology of social pathologists. American Journal of Sociology, 49, 165-180.
110.
Moreland, R. (1999). Transactive memory and job performance: Helping workers learn who knows what. In J. Levine, L. Thompson, & D. Messick (Eds.), Shared cognition in organizations: The management of knowledge (pp. 3-32). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
111.
Moreland, R. L., Argote, L., & Krishnan, R. (1996). Socially shared cognition at work. In J. L. Nye & A. M. Brower (Eds.), What's social about social cognition? (pp. 57-84). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
112.
Moscovici, S. (1984). The phenomenon of social representations. In R. M. Farr & S. Moscovici (Eds.), Social representations (pp. 3-69). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
113.
Norman, D. A. (1993). Cognition in the head and in the world: An introduction to the special issue on situated action. Cognitive Science News, 17, 1-6.
114.
Olick, J. K., & Robbins, J. (1998). Social memory studies: From “collective memory” to the historical sociology of mnemonic practices. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 105-140.
115.
Ouchi, W. G., & Wilkins, A. L. (1985). Organizational culture. Annual Review of Sociology, 11, 457-483.
116.
Park, R. (1972). The crowd and the public, and other essays. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
117.
Pfeffer, J. (1981). Management as symbolic action: The creation and maintenance of organizational paradigms. In L. L. Cummings & B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol.3, pp. 1-52). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
118.
Pfohl, S. (1977). The discovery of child abuse. Social Problems, 24, 310-323.
119.
Prus, R. (1987). Generic social process: Maximizing conception development in ethnographic research. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 16, 250-293.
120.
Reicher, S. D. (1987). Crowd behavior as social action. In J. C. Turner, M. A. Hogg, P. J. Oakes, S. D. Reicher, & M. S. Wetherell (Eds.), Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell.
121.
Reicher, S. D., Spears, R., & Postmes, T. (1995). A social identity model of deindividuation phenomena. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology, Vol. 6 (pp. 161-198). Chichester, England: Wiley.
122.
Resnick, L., Levine, J., & Teasley, S. D. (1991). Perspectives on socially shared cognition. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
123.
Rochberg-Halton, E. (1987). Meaning and modernity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
124.
Rommetveit, R. (1974). On message structure: A framework for the study of language and communication. London, New York: Wiley.
125.
Rommetveit, R. (1979). On the architecture of intersubjectivity. In R. Rommetveit & R. M. Blakar (Eds.), Studies of language, thought, and verbal communication (pp.93-107). London, New York: Academic.
126.
Rommetveit, R. (1980). On “meanings” of acts and what is meant by what is said in a pluralistic social world. In M. Brenner (Ed.), The structure action (pp. 108-149). New York: St. Martin's Press.
127.
Rommetveit, R., & Blakar, R. M. (Eds.). (1979). Studies of language, thought, and verbal communication. London and New York: Academic.
128.
Rosenberg, M. (1984). A symbolic interactionist view of psychosis. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 25(3), 289-302.
129.
Ross, L., & Nisbett, R. (1991). The person and the situation. New York: McGraw-Hill.
130.
Rouse, W., & Morris, N. (1986). On looking into the black box: Prospects and limits in the search for mental models. Psychological Bulletin, 100, 359-363.
131.
Satori, G. (1969). Politics, ideology, and belief systems. American Political Science Review, 63, 398-411.
132.
Schelling, T. (1960). The strategy of conflict. Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press.
133.
Schneider, D. (1991). Social cognition. In M. R. Rosenzweig & L. W. Porter (Eds.), Annual review of psychology (pp. 527-561). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews.
134.
Schutz, A. (1962). Collected papers. The Hague, Netherlands: Nijhoff.
135.
Schwartz, B. (1997). Collective memory and history: How Abraham Lincoln became a symbol of racial equality. Sociological Quarterly, 38, 469-497.
136.
Sedikides, C. (1990). Effects of fortuitously activated constructs versus activated communication goals on person impressions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 397-408.
137.
Shaw, M. E. (1976). Group dynamics: The psychology of small group behavior (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
138.
Sherif, M. (1935). Study of some social factors in perception. Archives of Psychology, 27(187).
139.
Sherif, M. (1936). The psychology of social norms. New York: Harper & Row.
140.
Simon, H. A. (1955). A behavioral model of rational choice. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 69, 99-118.
141.
Smith, A. (1976). The theory of moral sentiments. Oxford, England: Clarendon. (Original work published 1759)
142.
Smith, K., & Crandell, S. D. (1984). Exploring collective emotion. American Behavioral Scientist, 27, 813-828.
143.
Spector, M., & Kitsuse, J. (1977). Constructing social problems. New York: Aldine.
144.
Stasser, G. (1992). Pooling of unshared information during group discussion. In S. Worchel, W. Wood, & J. A. Simpson (Eds.), Group processes and productivity (pp. 48-67). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
145.
Stasser, G. (1999). The uncertain role of unshared information in collective choice. In L. L. Thompson, J. M. Levine, & D. M. Messick (Eds.), Shared cognition in organizations: The management of knowledge (pp. 49-70). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
146.
Stasser, G., & Stewart, D. (1992). Discovery of hidden profiles by decision-making groups: Solving a problem versus making ajudgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 426-434.
147.
Stasser, G., & Titus, W. (1985). Pooling of unshared information in group decision making: Biased information sampling during discussion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1467-1478.
148.
Stone, G. P. (1962). Appearance and the self. In A. M. Rose (Ed.), Human behavior and social processes (pp. 86-118). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
149.
Strauss, A. (1978). Negotiations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
150.
Strauss, A. (1994). Continual permutations of action. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
151.
Strauss, A., Schatzman, D., Ehrlich, D., Bucher, R., & Sabshin, M. (1963). The hospital and its negotiated order. In E. Friedson (Ed.), The hospital in modern society (pp. 147-169). New York: Free Press.
152.
Tarde, G. (1969). On communication and social influence: Selected papers (T. N. Clark, ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1901)
153.
Thomas, W. I., & Thomas, D. S. (1928). The child in America: Behavior problems and programs. New York: Knopf.
154.
Thompson, L. (1998). The mind and heart of the negotiator. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
155.
Tiekle-Degnen, L., & Rosenthal, R. (1990). The nature of rapport and its nonverbal correlates. Psychological Inquiry, 1(4), 285-293.
156.
Tindale, S., Smith, C., Thomas, L., Filkins, J., & Sheffey, S. (in press). Shared representations and asymmetric social influence processes in small groups. In E. Witte & J. Davis (Eds)., Understanding group behavior: Consensual action by small groups (Vol. 1). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
157.
Vollrath, D. A., Sheppard, B. H., Hinsz, V. B., & Davis, J. H. (1989). Memory performance by decision-making groups and individuals. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 43(3), 289-300.
158.
Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
159.
Wagner-Pacifici, R., & Schwartz, B. (1991). The Vietnam veteran's memorial: Commemorating a difficult past. American Journal of Sociology, 97, 376-420.
160.
Wegner, D. M. (1987). Transactive memory: A contemporary analysis of the group mind. In B. Mullen & G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Theories of group behavior (pp. 185-208). New York: Springer.
161.
Wegner, D. M., Erber, R., & Raymond, P. (1991). Transactive memory in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 923-929.
162.
Wegner, D. M., Giuliano, T., & Hertel, P. (1995). Cognitive interdependence in close relationships. In W. J. Ickes (Ed.), Compatible and incompatible relationships (pp. 253-276). New York: Springer-Verlag.
163.
Weick, K. (1976). Educational organizations as loosely coupled systems. Administrative Science Quarterly, 21, 1-19.
164.
Weigert, A. (1986). The social production of identity: Metatheoretical foundations. Sociological Quarterly, 27(2), 165-183.
165.
Whyte, W. H. (1988). City: Rediscovering the center. New York: Doubleday.
166.
Wiley, J. (1991). A refracted reality of everyday life: The constructed culture of a therapeutic community. Symbolic Interaction, 14, 139-163.
167.
Wilke, H. A. M., & Meertens, R. W. (1994). Group performance. London, New York: Routledge.
168.
Wilson, E. O. (1998, April). The biological basis of morality. Atlantic Monthly, pp. 53-70.
169.
Wilson, J., & Rutherford, A. (1989). Mental models: Theory and application in human factors. Human Factors, 31, 617-634.
170.
Wineburg, S. (1989). Remembrance of theories past. Educational Researcher, 18(4), 7-10.
171.
Wolff, M. (1973). Notes on the behavior of pedestrians. In A. Birenbaum & E. Sagarin (Eds.), People in places (pp. 35-48). New York: Praeger.
172.
Woolgar, S., & Pawluch, D. (1985). Ontological gerrymandering: The anatomy of social problems. Social Problems, 32, 214-227.
173.
Worchel, S. (1994). You can go home again: Returning group research to the group context with an eye on developmental issues. Small Group Research, 25(2), 205-223.
174.
Wyer, R. S., & Gruenfeld, D. H. (1995). Information processing in interpersonal communication. In D. E. Hewes (Ed.), The cognitive bases of interpersonal communication (pp. 7-47). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
175.
Zajonc, R. B. (1960). The process of cognitive tuning in communications. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61, 159-167.
176.
Zajonc, R. B., & Adelmann, P. K. (1987). Cognition and communication: A story of missed opportunities. Social Science Information, 26(1), 3-30.
177.
Zerubavel, E. (1981). Hidden rhythms. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
178.
Zerubavel, E. (1991). The fine line. New York: Free Press.
179.
Zerubavel, E. (1997). Social mindscapes: An invitation to cognitive sociology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
180.
Zucker, L. (1977). The mutable selfBeverly Hills, CA: Sage.
