The Gorkha, Nepal, earthquake and the series of aftershocks that followed have damaged many heritage structures in and around Kathmandu Valley, including UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WHSs). This paper summarizes observed damage to the heritage structures of diverse typologies within the UNESCO WHSs of Kathmandu Valley. As a part of the investigation, inspection survey and damage assessment were carried out for Jagannath Temple, one of the partially damaged monuments in the Kathmandu Durbar Square WHS. Ambient vibration and in-situ tests using the pendulum hammer, the rebound hammer, and in-place push on masonry walls were performed. Finite-element models of the structure were developed, and the results were analyzed and compared with field observations. Based on the observed damages and the results obtained from numerical modeling, the primary causes of the damage are discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
ArasF., KrstevskaL., AltayG., and TashkovL., 2011. Experimental and numerical modal analyses of a historical masonry palace, Engineering Structure25, 81–91.
2.
ASTM, 2011. Standard test methods for in situ measurement of masonry mortar joint shear strength index, ASTM C1531-09, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
3.
BeckhM., 2006. Traditional construction techniques of the Newars at the Itum Baha monastery in Kathmandu, Proceedings of the Second International Congress on Construction History, Queens College Cambridge University, 29 March–2 April 2006, 325–339.
4.
BonapaceC., and SestiniV., 2003. Traditional materials and construction technologies used in the Kathmandu valley, UNESCO, Paris.
5.
ChenJ. F., MorozovE. V., and ShankarK., 2012. A combined elastoplastic damage model for progressive failure analysis of composite materials and structures, Composite Structures94, 3478–3489.
6.
ConinghamR., AcharyaK. P., DavisC., and KunwarR. B., 2015. Post-disaster urban archaeological investigation, evaluation, and interpretation in the Kathmandu Valley World Heritage Property—a report and recommendations of a mission conducted between 3/10/2015 and 22/11/2015, submitted to UNESCO Kathmandu Office, Nepal.
7.
DangolP., 2007. Elements of Nepalese Temple Architecture, Adroit Publishers, New Delhi, India.
8.
Department of Archaeology (DoA), 2015. Preliminary list of affected monuments of Nepal by Gorkha Earthquake 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal.
9.
DogangunA., UralA., and LivaogluR., 2008. Seismic performance of masonry buildings during recent earthquake in Turkey, Proceedings of the 14th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 12–17 October, Beijing.
10.
GentileC., and SaisiA., 2007. Ambient vibration testing of historic masonry towers for structural identification and damage assessment, Construction and Building Materials21, 1311–1321.
11.
GulkanP., and LangenbachR., 2004. The earthquake resistance of traditional timber and masonry dwellings in Turkey, Proceedings of the 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 1–6 August, Vancouver, BC.
12.
JaishiB., RenW. X., ZongZ. H., and MaskeyP. N., 2003. Dynamic and seismic performance of old multi-tiered temples in Nepal, Engineering Structures25, 1827–1839.
13.
KarantoniF. V, PapadopoulosM. L, and PantazopoulouS. J., 2016. Simple seismic assessment of traditional unreinforced masonry buildings, International Journal of Architectural Heritage10, 1055–1077.
14.
Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust (KVPT), 2000. The Kathmandu Durbar Initiative 2000–2003 Report, Lalitpur, Nepal.
15.
KornW., 1976. The Traditional Architecture of the Kathmandu Valley, 1st Edition, Ratna Pustak Bhandar, Kathmandu, Nepal.
16.
KornW., 2014. The Traditional Architecture of the Kathmandu Valley: The Shikharas, 1st EditionRatna Pustak Bhandar, Kathmandu, Nepal.
17.
LangenbachR., 2010. Earthquake resistant traditional construction is not an oxymoron. The resilience of timber and masonry structures in the Himalayan region and beyond, and its relevance to heritage preservation in Bhutan. Proceedings of the International Conference on Disaster Management and Cultural Heritage, 12–14 December, Bhutan.
18.
NienhuysS., 2003. Options for reconstruction and retrofitting of historic pagoda temples, reconstruction of temples in Kathmandu, Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust, Lalitpur, Nepal.
19.
NRICPT (National Research Institute for Cultural Properties), 2016. Project for investigation of damage situation of cultural heritage in Nepal, Tokyo.
20.
ParajuliH. R., 2012. Determination of mechanical properties of the Kathmandu World Heritage brick masonry buildings, in Proceedings of the 15th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Lisbon, Portugal.
21.
RILEM, 1997. Determination of pointing hardness by pendulum hammer, Recommendation MS. D.7, Material and Structures30, 323–324.
22.
RILEM, 1998. Determination of masonry rebound hardness, Recommendation MS. D.2, Materials and Structures31, 375–377.
23.
SAP, 2000. (v. 16,0.0). Computers and Structures, Berkeley, CA.
24.
ShakyaK., PantD. R., MaharjanM., BhagatS., WijeyewickremaA. C., and MaskeyP. N., 2013. Lesson learned from the performance of buildings during the September 18, 2011, earthquake in Nepal, Asian Journal of Civil Engineering14, 719–733.
25.
ShakyaM., 2010. Modal analysis using ambient vibration measurement and damage identification of three-tiered Radha Krishna temple, Master's thesis, Purbanchal University, Nepal.
26.
ShakyaM., VarumH., VicenteR., and CostaA., 2012. Structural vulnerability of Nepalese pagoda temples, Proceedings of the 15th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 24–28 September, Lisbon.
27.
ShakyaM., VarumH., VicenteR., and CostaA., 2014. Seismic sensitivity analysis of the common structural components of Nepalese pagoda temples, Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering12, 1679–1703.
28.
SorrentinoL., LiberatoreL., LiberatoreD., and MasianiR., 2014. The behavior of vernacular buildings in the 2012 Emilia earthquakes, Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering12, 2367–2382.
29.
TiwariS. R., 2009. Temples of the Nepal Valley, Himal Books, Kathmandu, Nepal.
30.
ThapaJ. B., 2011. Test and simulation of brick masonry wall of historic buildings, Master's thesis, Tribhuvan University, Nepal.
VasconcelosG., LourencoP. B., and PlettiE., 2013. An overview on the seismic behavior of timber frame structures, Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Historic Earthquake-Resistant Timber Frames in Mediterranean Region, 4–6 November, Calabria, Italy.
