Light detection and ranging (LiDAR) technology provides horizontal and vertical information at high spatial resolutions and vertical accuracies. Forest attributes such as canopy height can be directly retrieved from LiDAR data. Direct retrieval of canopy height provides opportunities to model above-ground biomass and canopy volume. Access to the vertical nature of forest ecosystems also offers new opportunities for enhanced forest monitoring, management and planning.
Aldred, A. and Bonner, M.1985: Application of airborne lasers to forest surveys. Canadian Forestry Service, Petawawa National Forestry Centre, Information Report PI-X-51, 62-62 pp.
2.
Arp, H., Griesbach, J. and Burns, J.1982: Mapping in tropical forests: a new approach using the laser APR. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing48, 91-100.
3.
Axelsson, P.1999: Processing of laser scanner data-algorithms and applications. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing54, 138-147.
4.
Baltsavias, E. P.1999a: Airborne laser scanning: basic relations and formulas. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing54, 199-214.
5.
Baltsavias, E. P.1999b: Airborne laser scanning: existing systems and firms and other resources. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing54, 164-198.
6.
Baltsavias, E. P.1999c: A comparison of between photogrammetry and laser scanning. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing54, 83-94.
7.
Blair, J. B., Coyle, D. B., Bufton, J. L. and Harding, D. J. 1994: Optimization of an airborne laser altimeter for remote sensing of vegetation and tree canopies. In Proceedings, International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Pasadena CA, 8-12 August, 939-941.
8.
Blair, J. B., Rabine, D. L. and Hofton, M. A.1999: The Laser Vegetation Imaging Sensor: a medium-altitude, digitisation-only, airborne laser altimeter for mapping vegetation and topography. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing54, 115-122.
9.
Cowen, D. J., Jensen, J. R., Hendrix, C., Hodgson, M. E. and Schill, S. R.2000: A GIS-assisted rail construction econometric model that incorporates LiDAR data. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing66, 1323-1328.
10.
Davenport, I. J., Bradbury, R. B., Anderson, G. Q. A., Hayman, G. R. F., Krebs, J. R., Mason, D. C., Wilson, J. D. and Veck, N. J.2000: Improving bird population models using airborne remote sensing. International Journal of Remote Sensing21, 2705-2717.
11.
Drake, J. B. and Weishampel, J. F.2000: Multifractal analysis of canopy height measures in a longleaf pine savanna. Forest Ecology and Management128, 121-127.
12.
Drake, J. B., Dubayah, R., Knox, R. G., Clark, D. B. and Condit, R.2001: Relationship between lidar metrics and aboveground biomass in closed-canopy neotropical forests. In Hofton, M. A., editor, The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Science. Volume XXXIV, Part 3/W4, Commission III, Annapolis MD, 22-24 October, 147-154.
13.
Dubayah, R. O. and Drake, J. B.2000: Lidar remote sensing for forestry. Journal of Forestry98, 44-46.
14.
Dubayah, R., Blair, J. B., Bufton, J. L., Clark, D. B., JaJa, J., Knox, R., Luthcke, S. B., Prince, S. and Weishampel, J. 1997: The vegetation canopy LiDAR mission. In Proceedings, American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. Washington DC, 5-7 December.
15.
Flood, M. and Gutelius, B.1997: Commercial implications of topographic terrain mapping using scanning airborne laser radar. Photogrammetry Engineering and Remote SensingLXIII, 327-329; 363-366.
16.
Harding, D., Blair, J., Rabine, D. and Still, K.2000: SLICER airborne laser altimeter characterization of canopy structure and sub-canopy topography for the BOREAS Northern and Southern Study Regions: Instrument and Data Product Description. In Technical Report Series on the Boreal Ecosystem-Atmosphere Study (BOREAS), Volume 93, 45-45 pp.
17.
Harding, D. J., Lefsky, M. A., Parker, G. G. and Blair, J. B.2001: Laser altimeter canopy height profiles: methods and validation for closed-canopy, broadleaf forests. Remote Sensing of Environment76, 283-297.
18.
Hickman, G. D. and Hogg, J. E.1969: Application of an airborne pulsed laser for near-shore bathymetric measurements. Remote Sensing of Environment1, 47-58.
19.
Hudak, A. T., Lefsky, M. A. and Cohen, W. B.2001: Integration of lidar and Landsat ETM data. In Hofton, M. A., editor, The international archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Science. Volume XXXIV, Part 3/W4, Commission III, Annapolis MD, 22-24 October, 95-104.
20.
Kilian, J., Haala, N. and Englich, M.1996: Capture and evaluation of airborne laser scanner data. In International Archives of Photo-grammetry and Remote Sensing. Volume XXXI, Part B3, Vienna, Austria, 9-19 July, 383-388.
21.
Krabill, W. B., Collings, J. G., Swift, R. N. and Butler, M. L.1980: Airborne laser topographic mapping results from Initial Joint NASA/U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Experiment. NASA Technical Memorandum 73287, Wallops Flight Center.
22.
Krabill, W., Thomas, R. H., Martin, C. F., Swift, R. N. and Frederick, E. B.1995: Accuracy of airborne laser altimetry over the Greenland ice sheet. International Journal of Remote Sensing16, 1211-1222.
23.
Kraus, K. and Pfeifer, N.1998: Determination of terrain models in wooded areas with airborne laser scanner data. ISPRS Journal of Photo-grammetry and Remote Sensing53, 193-203.
24.
Kreslavsky, M. and Head, J.1999: Kilometer-scale slopes on Mars and their correlation with geologic units: initial results from Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) data. Journal of Geophysical Research104, 21911-21924.
25.
Lefsky, M. A., Cohen, W. B., Acker, S. A., Spies, T. A., Parker, G. G. and Harding, D.1997: Lidar remote sensing of forest canopy structure and related biophysical parameters at the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest, Oregon, USA. In Hofton, M. A., editor, Natural Resources Management Using Remote Sensing and GIS. Washington DC: ASPRS, 79-91.
26.
Lefsky, M. A., Harding, D., Cohen, W. B., Parker, G. and Shugart, H. H.1999a: Surface LiDAR remote sensing of basal area and biomass in deciduous forests of Eastern Maryland, USA. Remote Sensing of Environment67, 83-98.
27.
Lefsky, M. A., Cohen, W. B., Acker, S. A., Parker, G. G., Spies, T. A. and Harding, D.1999b: Lidar remote sensing of the canopy structure and biophysical properties of Douglas-fir western hemlock forests. Remote Sensing of Environment70, 339-361.
28.
Lefsky, M., Cohen, W. and Spies, T.2001a: An evaluation of alternate remote sensing products for forest inventory, monitoring, and mapping of Douglas-fir forests in western Oregon. Canadian Journal of Forest Research31, 78-87.
29.
Lefsky, M. A., Cohen, W. B., Harding, D. J., Parker, G. G., Acker, S. A. and Gower, S. T.2001b: Lidar remote sensing of aboveground biomass in three biomes. In The international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information science. Volume XXXIV, Part 3/W4, Commission III, Annapolis MD, 22-24 October, 155-160.
30.
MacLean, G. A. and Krabill, W. B.1986: Gross-merchantable timber volume estimation using an airborne LiDAR system. Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing12, 7-18.
31.
MacLean, G. A. and Martin, G. L.1984: Merchantable timber volume estimation using cross-sectional photogrammetric and densito-metric methods. Canadian Journal of Forest Research14, 803-810.
32.
Magnussen, S. and Boudewyn, P.1998: Derivations of stand heights from airborne laser scanner data with canopy-based quantile estimators. Canadian Journal of Forest Research28, 1016-1031.
33.
Magnussen, S., Eggermont, P. and LaRiccia, V. N.1999: Recovering tree heights from airborne laser scanner data. Forest Science45, 407-422.
34.
Matrosov, S., Heymsfield, A., Kropfli, R., Martner, R., Reinking, R., Snider, J., Piironen, P. and Eloranta, E.1998: Comparison of ice cloud parameters obtained by combined remote sensor retrievals and direct methods. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology15, 184-196.
35.
McArdle, S. S., Farrington, G. and Rubinstein, I. 1999: A preliminary comparison of flood risk mapping using integrated remote sensing technology to aerial photography. In Proceedings, Fourth International Airborne Remote Sensing Conference and Exhibition. Ottawa, Ontario, 21-24 June. Ann Arbor MI: ERIM International, 616-623.
36.
Means, J.1999: Design, capabilities and uses of large-footprint and small-footprint lidar systems. In Csathó, B. M., editor, International Archives of the Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. Volume 32, Part 3-W14, La Jolla, California, 9-11 November, 201-207.
37.
Means, J. E., Acker, S. A., Harding, D. J., Blair, D. B., Lefsky, M. A., Cohen, W. B., Harmon, M. E. and McKee, W. A.1999: Use of large-footprint scanning airborne LiDAR to estimate forest stand characteristics in the Western Cascade of Oregon. Remote Sensing of Environment67, 298-308.
38.
Nelson, R.1997: Modeling forest canopy heights: The effects of canopy shape. Remote Sensing of Environment60, 327-334.
39.
Nelson, R., Krabill, W. and Maclean, G.1984: Determining forest canopy characteristics using airborne laser data. Remote Sensing of Environment15, 201-212.
40.
Nelson, R., Krabill, W. and Tonelli, J.1988a: Estimating forest biomass and volume using airborne laser data. Remote Sensing of Environment24, 247-267.
41.
Nelson, R., Swift, R. and Krabill, W.1988b: Using airborne lasers to estimate forest canopy and stand characteristics. Journal of Forestry86, 31-38.
42.
Nelson, R., Oderwald, R. and Gregoire, T. G.1997: Separating the ground and airborne laser sampling phases to estimate tropical forest basal area, volume, and biomass. Remote Sensing of Environment60, 311-326.
43.
Neumann, G. A.2001: Aspects of processing extra-terrestrial lidar data: Clementine, NEAR, MOLA. In Hofton, M. A., editor, The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Science. Volume XXXIV, Part 3/W4, Commission III, Annapolis MD, 22-24 October, 73-80.
44.
Næsset, E.1997: Determination of mean tree height of forest stands using airborne laser scanner data. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing52, 49-56.
45.
Ni-Meister, W., Jupp, D. L. B. and Dubayah, R.2001: Modeling lidar waveforms in heterogeneous and discrete canopies. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing39, 1943-1958.
46.
Nilsson, M.1996: Estimation of tree heights and stand volume using an airborne LiDAR system. Remote Sensing of Environment56, 1-7.
47.
Parker, G. G., Lefsky, M. A. and Harding, D. J.2001: Light transmittance in forest canopies determined using airborne laser altimetry and in-canopy quantum measurements. Remote Sensing of Environment76, 298-309.
48.
Ritchie, J. C., Evans, D. L., Jacobs, D., Everitt, J. H. and Weltz, M. A.1993: Measuring canopy structure with an airborne laser altimeter. Transactions of the ASAE36, 1235-1238.
49.
Roberts, G. 1998: Simulating the vegetation canopy lidar: an investigation of the waveform information content. University College London, M.Sc. Thesis, 74 pp.
50.
Saito, Y., Saito, R., Kawahara, T. D., Nomura, A. and Takeda, S.2000: Development and performance characteristics of laser-induced fluorescence imaging LiDAR for forestry applications. Forest Ecology and Management128, 129-137.
51.
Schreier, H., Lougheed, J., Tucker, C. and Leckie, D.1985: Automated measurements of terrain reflection and height variations using an airborne infrared laser system. International Journal of Remote Sensing6, 101-113.
52.
St-Onge, B. A. and Achaichia, N.2001: Measuring forest canopy height using a combination of lidar and aerial photography data. In The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Science. Volume XXXIV, Part 3/W4, Commission III, Annapolis MD, 22-24 October, 131-138.
53.
St-Onge, B., Dufort, J. and Lepage, R. 2000: Measuring tree height using scanning laser altimetry. In Proceedings of the 22nd Annual Canadian Remote Sensing Symposium. Victoria, B.C., 21-25 August, 425-432.
54.
Sun, G. and Ranson, K. J.2000: Modeling lidar returns from forest canopies. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing38, 2617-2626.
55.
Tickle, P., Witte, C., Danaher, T. and Jones, K. 1998: The application of large-scale video and laser altimetry to forest inventory. In Proceedings of the 9th Australasian Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry Conference. Sydney, Australia, 20-24 July.
56.
Tickle, P. K., Witte, C., Lee, A., Jones, K., Denham, R., Lucas, R. M. and Austin, J. 2001: The use of airborne scanning Lidar and large scale photography within a strategic forest inventory and monitoring framework. In Proceedings, International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Sydney, Australia, 9-13 July.
57.
Walklate, P. J., Richardson, G. M., Baker, D. E., Richards, P. A. and Cross, J. V. 1997: Short-range LiDAR measurement of top fruit tree canopies for pesticide applications research in the UK. In Narayanan, R. M. and Kalshoven, J. E., Jr, editors, Proceedings of SPIE - Advances in Laser Remote Sensing for Terrestrial and Oceanographic Applications. Orlando, FL, 21-22 April, Washington DC: The International Society for Optical Engineering, 143-151.
58.
Wehr, A. and Lohr, U.1999: Airborne laser scanning - an introduction and overview. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing54, 68-82.
59.
Weishampel, J. F., Ranson, K. J. and Harding, D. J.1996: Remote sensing of forest canopies. Selbyana17, 6-14.
60.
Weishampel, J. F., Blair, J. B., Knox, R. G., Dubayah, R. and Clark, D. B.2000: Volumetric LiDAR return patterns from an old-growth tropical rainforest canopy. International Journal of Remote Sensing21, 409-415.
61.
Wulder, M.1998: Optical remote-sensing techniques for the assessment of forest inventory and biophysical parameters. Progress in Physical Geography22, 449-476.
62.
Wulder, M., Magnussen, S., Harding, D., Boudewyn, P. and Seemann, D. 2000: Stability of surface LiDAR height estimates on a point and polygon basis. In Proceedings of the 22nd Annual Canadian Remote Sensing Symposium. Victoria, British Columbia, 21-25 August, 433-438.
63.
Young, M.1986: Optics and lasers: including fibers and optical waveguides. Berlin: Springer Verlag.