Recent philosophical debates in human geography tend to misappropriate critical realism as a method per se. Drawing upon an extensive review of the realist philosophy and method in social science, this article argues that critical realism is a philosophy in search of a method. It first delves into recent debates about critical realism within the wider geographical discourse. It then suggests three useful guidelines in executing realist research in human geography: iterative abstraction, qualified grounded theory method and methodological triangulation. The article ends with a detailed empirical example for the readers to work through of the ways in which realist research can be practised in human geography.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Allen, J.1983: In search of a method: Hegel, Marx and realism. Radical Philosophy35, 26–33.
2.
Allen, J. and McDowell, L.1989: Landlords and property. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3.
Amin, A. and Thrift, N.1994: Living in the global. In Amin, A. and Thrift, N., editors, Globalization, institutions, and regional development in Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1–22.
4.
Bhaskar, R.1975: A realist theory of science. Leeds: Leeds Books.
5.
Bhaskar, R.1979: The possibility of naturalism: a philosophical critique of the contemporary human sciences. Brighton: Harvester.
6.
Bhaskar, R.1986: Scientific realism and human emancipation. London: Verso.
7.
Bhaskar, R.1989a: The possibility of naturalism: a philosophical critique of the contemporary human sciences (2nd edn). New York: Harvester.
8.
Bhaskar, R.1989b: Reclaiming reality: a critical introduction to contemporary philosophy. London: Verso.
9.
Bhaskar, R.1993: Dialectic: the pulse of freedom. London: Verso.
10.
Bhaskar, R.1994: Plato etc.: the problems of philosophy and their resolution. London: Verso.
11.
Boden, D.1994: The business of talk: organizations in action. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Brewer, J. and Hunter, A.1989: Multimethod: a synthesis of styles. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
14.
Bryman, A.1984: the debate about quantitative and qualitative research: a question of method or epistemology?British Journal of Sociology35, 75–92.
15.
Bryman, A.1988: Quantity and quality in social research. London: Unwin Hyman.
16.
Bryman, A.1992: Quantitative and qualitative research: further reflections on their integration. In Brannen, J., editor, Mixing methods: qualitative and quantitative research, Aldershot: Avebury, 57–78.
17.
Bryman, J. and Burgess, R.G., editors, 1994: Analysing qualitative data. London: Routledge.
18.
Chappell, J.E. jr1991: On realism, in geography and elsewhere. The Professional Geographer43, 228–31.
19.
Cloke, P., Philo, C. and Sadler, D.1991: Approaching human geography: an introduction to contemporary theoretical debates. London: Paul Chapman.
20.
Collier, A.1994: Critical realism: an introduction to Roy Bhaskar's philosophy. London: Verso.
21.
Cox, K. and Mair, A.1989: Levels of abstraction in locality studies. Antipode21, 121–32.
22.
Denzin, N.K.1970: The research act in sociology: a theoretical introduction to sociological methods. London: Butterworths.
23.
Dey, I.1993: Qualitative data analysis: a userfriendly guide for social scientists. London: Routledge.
24.
Doel M.A.1991: Review of Reclaiming reality: a critical introduction to contemporary philosophy by R. Bhaskar. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space9, 247–48.
25.
Eyles, J.1988: Introduction: geography in the making. In Eyles, J., editor, Research in human geography, Oxford: Blackwell, 1–10.
26.
Fielding, N.G. and Fielding, J.L.1986: Linking data. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
27.
Glaser, B.G.1978: Theoretical sensitivity. Mill Valley, CA: The Sociology Press.
28.
Glaser, B.G. and Strauss, A.L.1967: The discovery of grounded theory: strategies for qualitative research. New York: Aldine.
29.
Gregory, D.1986: Realism. In Johnston, R.J., editor, The dictionary of human geography (2nd edn), Oxford: Blackwell, 387–90.
30.
Hammersley, M.1992: Deconstructing the qualitative–quantitative divide. In Brannen, J., editor, Mixing methods: qualitative and quantitative research, Aldershot: Avebury, 39–55.
31.
Harre, R.1979: Social being: a theory for social psychology. Oxford: Blackwell.
32.
Harre, R.1985: The philosophies of science (2nd edn). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
33.
Harre, R.1986: Varieties of realism: a rationale for the natural sciences. Oxford: Blackwell.
34.
Harre, R. and Madeen, E.H.1975: Causal powers: a theory of natural necessity. Oxford: Blackwell.
35.
Healey, M.J. and Rawlinson, M.B.1993: Interviewing business owners and managers: a review of methods and techniques. Geoforum24, 339–55.
36.
Henderson, J.1989: The globalisation of high technology production. London: Routledge.
37.
Herod, A.1993: Gender issues in the use of interviewing as a research method. The Professional Geographer45, 305–17.
38.
Horvath, R.J. and Gibson, K.D.1984: Abstraction in Marx's method. Antipode16, 12–25.
39.
Jick, T.D.1983: Mixing qualitative and quantitative methods: triangulation in action. In van Maanen, J., editor, Qualitative methodology, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 135–48.
40.
Keat, R. and Urry, J.1982: Social theory as science (2nd edn). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
41.
Keeble, D.E.1980: Industrial decline, regional policy and the urban–rural manufacturing shift in the United Kingdom. Environment and Planning A12, 945–62.
42.
Kuhn, T.S.1970: The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd edn). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
43.
Lawson, T.1989: On abstraction, tendencies and stylised facts: a realist approach to economic analysis. Cambridge Journal of Economics13, 59–78.
44.
Lawson, T.1995: A realist perspective on contemporary ‘economic theory‘. Journal of Economic Issues29, 1–32.
45.
Lawson, V.A. and Staeheli, L.A.1990: Realism and the practice of geography. The Professional Geographer42, 13–20.
46.
Lawson, V.A. and Staeheli, L.A.1991: On critical realism, human geography and arcane sects!The Professional Geographer43, 231–33.
47.
Layder, D.1988: The relation of theory and method: causal relatedness, historical contingency and beyond. Sociological Review36, 441–63.
48.
Layder, D.1990: The realist image in social science. London: Macmillan.
49.
Layder, D.1993: New strategies in social research. Cambridge: Polity Press.
50.
Lovering, J.1985: Regional intervention, defence industries and the structuring of space in Britain. Environment and Panning D: Society and Space3, 85–107.
51.
Lovering, J.1987: Militarism, capitalism, and the nationstate: towards a realist synthesis. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space5, 283–302.
52.
Lovering, J.1989: Postmodernism, Marxism and locality research: the contribution of critical realism to the debate. Antipode21, 1–12.
53.
Lovering, J.1990: Fordism's unknown successor: a comment on Scott's theory of flexible accumulation and the re-emergence of regional economies. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research14, 159–74.
54.
Lovering, J.1991: Theorizing postfordism: why contingency matters. A further response to Scott. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research15, 298–301.
55.
Lovering, J. 1993: The dangerous and unnecessary turn to Nietzsche. Paper presented at the annual conference of socialist economists, University of Leeds, 9–11July.
56.
Magill, K.1994: Against critical realism. Capital and Class54, 113–36.
57.
Martin, J.1990: Breaking up the mono-method monopolies in organizational analysis. In Hassard, J. and Denis, P., editors, The theory and philosophy or organizations: critical issues and new perspectives. London: Routledge, 30–43.
58.
Massey, D., Quantas, P. and Wield, D.1992: High tech fantasies: science parks in society, science and space. London: Routledge.
59.
McDowell, L.1992: Valid games? A response to Erica Schoenberger. The Professional Geographer44, 212–14.
60.
Miles, M. and Crush, J.1993: Personal narratives as interactive texts: collecting and interpreting migrant life-histories. The Professional Geographer45, 95–129.
61.
Morgan, K. and Sayer, A.1988: Micro-circuits of capital. Cambridge: Polity Press.
62.
Morrow, R.A.1994: Critical theory and methodology. London: Sage.
63.
Murdoch, J. and Pratt, A.C.1993: Rural studies: Modernism, post-modernism and the ‘post-rural‘. Journal of Rural Studies9, 412–27.
64.
Outhwaite, W.1987: New philosophies of social science: realism, hermeneutics and critical theory. London: Macmillan.
65.
Platt, J.1986: Functionalism and the survey: the relation of theory and method. Sociological Review34, 501–36.
66.
Porter, M.1994: ‘Second-hand ethnography‘: some problems in analysing a feminist project. In Bryman, A. and Burgess, R. G., editors, Analysing qualitative data, London: Routledge, 67–88.
67.
Pratt, A.C.1991: Reflections on critical realism and geography. Antipode23, 248–55.
68.
Pratt, A.C.1994: Uneven re-production: industry, space and society. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
69.
Pratt, A.C.1995: Putting critical realism to work: the practical implications for geographical research. Progress in Human Geography19, 61–74.
70.
Sarre, P.1987: Realism in practice. Area19, 3–10.
71.
Sayer, A.1981: Abstraction: a realist interpretation. Radical Philosophy28, 6–15.
72.
Sarre, P.1984: Method in social science: a realist approach. London: Hutchinson.
73.
Sarre, P.1986: Industrial location on a world scale: the case of the semiconductor industry. In Scott, A.J. and Storper, M., editors, Production, work, territory: the geographical anatomy of industrial capitalism, Boston: Allen & Unwin, 107–123.
74.
Sarre, P.1992: Method in social science: a realist approach (2nd edn). London: Routledge.
75.
Sarre, P.1993: Postmodernist thought in geography: a realist view. Antipode24, 320–44.
76.
Sayer, A. and Morgan, K.1985: A modern industry in a declining region: links between method, theory and policy. In Massey, D. and Meegan, R., editors, Politics and method: contrasting studies in industrial geography. London: Methuen, 147–68.
77.
Sayer, A. and Walker, R.1992: The new social economy: reworking the division of labour. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
78.
Schoenberger, E.1991: the corporate interview as a research method in economic geography. The Professional Geographer43, 180–89.
79.
Scott, A.J.1988: Flexible production systems and regional development: the rise of new industrial spaces in North America and western Europe. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research12, 171–86.
80.
Scott, A.J.1991a: Flexible production systems: analytical tasks and theoretical horizons – a reply to Lovering. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research15, 130–34.
81.
Scott, A.J.1991b: A further rejoinder to Lovering. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research15, 302-302.
82.
Silverman, D.1985: Qualitative methodology and sociology. Aldershot: Gower.
83.
Silverman, D.1993: Interpreting qualitative data: methods for analysing talk, text and interaction. London: Sage.
84.
Strauss, A.L.1987: Qualitative analysis for social scientists. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
85.
Strauss, A.L. and Corbin, J.1990: Basics of qualitative research: grounded theory procedures and techniques. London: Sage.
86.
Tickell, A.T. 1992: The social regulation of banking: restructuring foreign banks in Manchester and London. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Manchester.
87.
Turner, B.A.1981: Some practical aspects of qualitative data analysis: one way of organising the cognitive processes associated with the generation of grounded theory. Quality and Quantity15, 225–47.
88.
Turner, B.A.1994: patterns of crisis behaviour: a qualitative inquiry. In Bryman, A. and Burgess, R.G., editors, Analysing qualitative data, London: Routledge, 195–215.
89.
Vaitkus, S.1994: The realist image in social science, or a realist's categorization of social thinking?Philosophy of the Social Sciences24, 76–83.
90.
Watts, M.J. and Bohle, H.G.1993: The space of vulnerability: the causal structure of hunger and famine. Progress in Human Geography17, 43–67.
91.
Webb, E.J., Campbell, D.T., Schwartz, R.D. and Sechrest, L.1966: Unobtrusive measures: nonreactive research in the social sciences. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
92.
Williams, S.W.1981: Realism, Marxism and human geography. Antipode13, 31–38.
93.
Yeung, W.C.H. 1993: Critical realism and the transnationalization of transnational corporations: towards a re-conceptualization. Paper presented at the annual conference for socialist economists, University of Leeds, 9–11July.
94.
Yeung, W.C.H.1994a: Third world multinationals revisited: a research critique and future agenda. Third World Quarterly15, 297–317.
95.
Yeung, W.C.H.1994b: Critical reviews of geographical perspectives on business organizations and the organization of production: towards a network approach. Progress in Human Geography18, 460–90.
96.
Yeung, W.C.H.1994c: Hong Kong firms in the ASEAN region: transnational corporations and foreign direct investment. Environment and Planning A26, 1931–56.
97.
Yeung, W.C.H.1994d: Transnational corporations from Asian developing countries: their characteristics and competitive edge. Journal of Asian Business10, 17–58.
98.
Yeung, W.C.H.1995a: Qualitative personal interviews in international business research: some lessons from a study of Hong Kong transnational corporations. International Business Review4, 313–39.
99.
Yeung, W.C.H.1995b: The geography of Hong Kong transnational corporations in the ASEAN region: some empirical observations. Area27, 318–34.
100.
Yeung, W.C.H.1996a: Sectoral specialization and competitive advantage: Hong Kong investments in the ASEAN region. ASEAN Economic Bulletin13, 74–94.
101.
Yeung, W.C.H.1996b: The historical geography of Hong Kong investments in the ASEAN region. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography17, 66–82.
102.
Yeung, W.C.H.1996c: Attracting foreign investment? The role of investment incentives in the ASEAN operations of transnational corporations. The Pacific Review9, 505–29.
103.
Yeung, W.C.H.1997a: the social-spatial constitution of business organizations: a geographical perspective. Organization 4, (in press).
104.
Yeung, W.C.H.1997b: Cooperative strategies and Chinese business networks: a study of Hong Kong transnational corporations in the ASEAN region. In Beamish, P.W. and Killing, J.P., editors, Cooperative strategies: Asia-Pacific perspectives, San Francisco, CA: The New Lexington Press, 22–56.
105.
Yeung, W.C.H.1997c: Business networks and transnational corporations: a study of Hong Kong firms in the ASEAN region. Economic Geography73, 1–25.
106.
Yeung, W.C.H. forthcoming: Transnational corporations and business networks. London: Routledge.
107.
Yin, R.K.1994: Case study research: design and methods (2nd edn). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
